Chapter

Outline

Chapter 28
Lipids
Polar bears
have a large
reserve
of lipids.

Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 10e

John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Morris Hein, Scott Pattison, and Susan Arena
 Chapter
Outline

Course Outline
1. Introduction
2. Classification of Lipids
• Simple lipids
• Complex lipids
• Derived lipids
3. Edible fats & oil
4. Industrial application

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 Chapter
Outline

Lipids: Hydrophobic Molecules

Lipids are water-insoluble substances that have several
important biological functions that are related to how
lipids are classified.

Lipids interact weakly with water molecules because they

are composed primarily of nonpolar alkyl groups.

Lipids are classified as hydrophobic (“water fearing”) to

designate their inability to interact effectively with water
or their strong tendency to move away from water.
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 Chapter
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Lipids: Hydrophobic Molecules

Fatty acids are common components of lipids.

As fatty acids get larger, the water solubility of the

fatty acid decreases dramatically as shown on the
next slide . . .

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 Chapter
Outline

Lipids: Hydrophobic Molecules

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Outline

Classification of Lipids
Lipids molecules are relatively large and nonpolar. Yet,
within this broad description, lipid structures vary
markedly. Lipids can be classified in four categories
which recognize major structural similarities.

• Simple lipids

• Complex lipids

• Derived lipids
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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
The simple lipids include fats, oils, and waxes. These
simple lipids are derivatives of lipid-like substances call
fatty acids.

Fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids (generally

greater than about 12 carbons) that have no solubility in
water.

The hydrophilic -COOH group is referred to as a polar

head and the hydrophobic hydrocarbon portion is
referred to as a nonpolar tail.
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Outline

Simple Lipids
Fats and waxes are solids due to a higher composition of
saturated fatty acids while oils are liquids due to a
higher composition of unsaturated fatty acids.

Table 28.1 on the next slide lists properties of saturated

and unsaturated fatty acids separately. Notice how
unsaturated fatty acids generally have lower melting
points than saturated fatty acids.

Lipids prepared from fatty acids with lower melting points

tend to be liquids instead of solids at room temperature.
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Simple Lipids

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Outline

Simple Lipids
Unsaturated fatty acids exist as cis and trans isomers. The
cis isomer is more prevalent in nature.

The cis and trans isomers of oleic acid are shown on the
next slide.

Oleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid. The cis isomer has a

bent structure which prevents close stacking resulting in
a compound that resists solidification.

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Outline

Simple Lipids

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Outline

Your Turn!
Draw the cis and trans isomers of palmitoleic acid.
CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
Draw the cis and trans isomers of palmitoleic acid.
CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.
H

C
C
trans-isomer
H
H

C
H
C
cis-isomer

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Outline

Simple Lipids
Certain fatty acids, as well as other lipids, are biochemical
precursors of several classes of hormones.

For example, ω-6 (omega-6) and ω-3 fatty acids are used
to make hormones, the most common of which are the
eicosanoids.

These hormones are derived from fatty acids with 20

carbon atoms, either the ω-6 (arachidonic acid) or the
ω-3 (eicosapentaenoic acid).
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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
Omega (ω) is the last letter in the Greek alphabet.
Correspondingly, the last carbon atom in a carbon chain
of a compound is often referred to as the omega carbon.

In reference to unsaturated carboxylic acids, omega plus a

number (e.g., ω-3) indicates the location of the first
carbon–carbon double bond, counting from the omega
carbon.

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Simple Lipids
So for example arachidonic acid is an ω-6 fatty acid
because the first double bond from the last carbon atom
is on the sixth carbon atom.
arachidonic acid
COOH

CH3
5 3 1
6 4 2

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
What is the correct classification of the fatty acid shown
below?

CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

• ω-3
• ω-6

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
What is the correct classification of the fatty acid shown
below?

CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

• ω-3
• ω-6

The double bond is attached to the sixth carbon from the

end of the molecule furthest from the carboxyl group.
This is an ω-6 fatty acid. 18
 Chapter
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Simple Lipids
Examples of eicosanoids are:

• Thromboxanes
• Prostacyclins
• Prostaglandins
• Leukotrienenes

The synthesis of eicosanoids from arachidonic acid is

shown on the next slide . . .

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Outline

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Simple Lipids
Eicosanoids are hormones and coordinate various cellular
responses.

• Some are involved with blood clotting as they can cause

platelet aggregation while others trigger an increase in
body temperature.

• Some eicosanoids coordinate HCl and mucous secretion

by the stomach lining and constriction of the bronchial
tubes in the lungs.
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Simple Lipids
• Some eicosanoids stimulate and attract white cells,
while other eicosanoids cause the white cells to
disperse.

• Eicosanoids can also cause vasodilation as well as

vasoconstriction.

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Outline

Simple Lipids
Many drugs control one or more of the physiological
effects produced by the eicosanoids.

For example, aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory

drug (and NSAID) that blocks the oxidation of
arachidonic acid which in turn prevents the formation
of prostaglandins and thromboxanes.

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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
Fats and oils are triester derivatives of glycerol and three
fatty acid molecules as shown below.

Because there are three ester groups per glycerol, these

lipids are called triacylglycerols or triglycerides. The
fatty acids have carbon chains with 14-18 carbon atoms.

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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
Triglycerides are prepared by the reaction of a glycerol
molecule and three fatty acid molecules. The fatty acid
molecules can be saturated or unsaturated.

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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
Waxes are esters of high-molar-mass fatty acids and high-
molar-mass alcohols.

They have the general formula shown below in which the

alcohol (ROH) contributes up to about 30 carbons.

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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
Waxes are very large molecules with almost no polar
groups. They represent one of the most hydrophobic
classes of lipids.

Their extreme water insolubility allows waxes to serve a

protective function. Leaves, feathers, fruit, and fur are
often naturally coated with wax.

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 Chapter
Outline

Simple Lipids
An important biological function of a wax is to act as a
protective coating. The “shine” on these leaves is due
to a thick protective wax coating.

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
Write the formula for a wax formed from palmitic acid
[CH3(CH2)14COOH] and 1-hexacosanol
[CH3(CH2)24CH2OH].

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
Write the formula for a wax formed from palmitic acid
[CH3(CH2)14COOH] and 1-hexacosanol
[CH3(CH2)24CH2OH].
O
palmitic acid portion

1-hexacosanol portion

As with all waxes, this wax is an ester.

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 Chapter
Outline

Fats in Metabolism
Fats are an important food source for humans and
normally account for about 25–50% of our caloric
intake. Fats are an especially good source of metabolic
energy.

Most metabolic energy is derived from carbon oxidation.

When oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, fats supply
about 40 kJ per gram (9.5 kcal/g), which is more than
twice the amount obtained from carbohydrates or
proteins.
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 Chapter
Outline

Fats in Metabolism
Fats are what our bodies prefer when storing energy
reserves. These reserves are in the form of
triacylglycereols in fatty tissue.

On average, this tissue stores about two to three weeks’

worth of energy.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
There are three broad categories of complex lipids.

• Phospholipids
• Sphingolipids
• Glycolipids

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
The phospholipids are a group of compounds that yield
one or more fatty acid molecules, a phosphate group,
and usually a nitrogenous base upon hydrolysis.

In contrast to the triacylglycerols, phospholipids have a

hydrophilic end that interacts with water.

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Outline

Complex Lipids
Phospholipids are one of the most important membrane
components.

They are also involved in the metabolism of other lipids

and nonlipids.

Three categories of phospholipids are phosphatidic acids,

phosphatidylcholines, and phosphatidylethanolamines.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
Phosphatidic acids are glyceryl esters of fatty acids and
phosphoric acid. The phosphatidic acids are important
intermediates in the synthesis of triacylglycerols and
other phospholipids.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
Phosphatidylcholines (lecithins) are glyceryl esters of fatty
acids, phosphoric acid, and choline.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
The single most important biological function for
phosphatidylcholine is as a membrane component which
makes up between 10 and 20% of many membranes.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
Another important constituent of biological membranes is
the phosphatidylethanolamines (cephalins). These
lipids are glycerol esters of fatty acids, phosphoric acid,
and ethanolamine (HOCH2CH2NH2).

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
Sphingolipids are another type of compound lipid that,
when hydrolyzed, yield:

• a hydrophilic group (either phosphate and choline or a

carbohydrate)

• a long-chain fatty acid (18–26 carbons)

• sphingosine (an unsaturated amino alcohol)

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
The similarities between sphingosine and glycerol are
shown in the structures below.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
Sphingolipids are common membrane components because
they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic character.

Sphingomyelins are found in the myelin sheath membranes

that surround nerves.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
Glycolipids are a third type of compound lipid. These
compounds that contain a carbohydrate group.

The two most important classes of glycolipids are

cerebrosides and gangliosides. These substances are
found mainly in cell membranes of nerve and brain
tissue.

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 Chapter
Outline

Complex Lipids
A cerebroside may contain either D-galactose or D-
glucose. The following formula of a galactocerebroside
shows the typical structure of cerebrosides.

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
What is the classification of the following lipid?

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
What is the classification of the following lipid?

This lipid is an example of a phospholipid and more

specifically a phosphatidylethanolamine.
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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
What is the classification of the following lipid?

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
What is the classification of the following lipid?

This molecule
is a
glycolipid.

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 Chapter
Outline

Derived Lipids
Steroids are compounds that have the steroid nucleus,
which consists of four fused carbocyclic rings. This
nucleus contains 17 carbon atoms in one five-membered
ring and three six-membered rings.

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Derived Lipids
Modifications of this nucleus that occur in the various
steroid compounds include, for example, added side
alkyl chains, hydroxyl groups, carbonyl groups, and ring
double bonds.

Steroids are closely related in structure but are highly

diverse in function . . .

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 Chapter
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Derived Lipids
For example:

• Cholesterol, the most abundant steroid in the body, is

widely distributed in all cells and serves as a major
membrane component.

• Bile salts aid in the digestion of fats.

• Ergosterol, a yeast steroid, is converted to vitamin D by

ultraviolet radiation.
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 Chapter
Outline

Derived Lipids
• Digitalis and related substances called cardiac glycosides
are potent heart drugs.

• The adrenal cortex hormones are involved in

metabolism.

• The sex hormones.

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Outline

Derived Lipids
Cholesterol is the parent steroid compound from which the
steroid hormones are synthesized. In this process
cholesterol is converted to progesterone, a compound
that helps control the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

This hormone is also the parent compound from which

testosterone and the adrenal corticosteroids are
produced.

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 Chapter
Outline

Derived Lipids
Cholesterol is also used to build cell membranes, many of
which contain about 25% by mass of this steroid.

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 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
Identify the functional groups in cortisone.
CH2OH

C O
CH3
O

CH3

O 55
 Chapter
Outline

Your Turn!
Identify the functional groups in cortisone.
hydroxyl group
CH2OH

carbonyl group C O carbonyl group

CH3
O

CH3

O
carbonyl group carbon-carbon 56
double bond
 Chapter
Outline

Chapter 28 Summary
• Lipids are water-insoluble, oily, or greasy biochemicals.
All lipids are relatively large and nonpolar, yet lipid
structures may differ markedly.

• Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohols.

• Fats and oils are esters of fatty acids and glycerol.

• Waxes are esters of fatty acids and high-molar-mass

alcohols.
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Outline

Chapter 28 Summary
• Compound lipids are composed of fatty acid esters and
other components.

• Phospholipids yield a phosphate and a nitrogen-

containing base as well as glycerol and fatty acids upon
hydrolysis.

• Sphingolipids yield an unsaturated amino alcohol

(sphingosine) and a carbohydrate or phosphate and
nitrogen base in addition to a fatty acid upon hydrolysis.
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 Chapter
Outline

Chapter 28 Summary
• Glycolipids yield sphingosine and a carbohydrate as well
as a fatty acid upon hydrolysis.

• Steroids posses the steroid nucleus containing 17 carbon

atoms.

• Miscellaneous lipids include lipoproteins.

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 Chapter
Outline

Chapter 28 Summary
• Fatty acids, which form part of most lipids, are
carboxylic acids with long, hydrophobic carbon chains.

• Common fatty acids are straight-chain compounds with

an even number of carbons.

• Unsaturated (double bond–containing) fatty acids are

commonly cis isomers.

• Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential in human

diets. The eicosanoids are formed by oxidizing either
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omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids.
 Chapter
Outline

Chapter 28 Summary
• Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and long carbon chain
fatty acids.

• Waxes are esters of fatty acids and a high-molar-mass

alcohol (up to about 30 carbons long).

• Fats are a rich source of metabolic energy. They contain

a high percentage of carbon, whose oxidation releases
energy.

• Fats are our primary energy-storage molecules.

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Chapter 28 Summary
• The phospholipids are a group of compounds that yield
one or more fatty acid molecules, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base upon hydrolysis.

• Phospholipids combine hydrophobic and hydrophilic

properties, essential features of membrane lipids.

• Sphingolipids are compounds that, when hydrolyzed,

yield a hydrophilic group, a fatty acid, and sphingosine.

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Chapter 28 Summary
• Glycolipids are sphingolipids that contain carbohydrates.

• Steroids are compounds that have the steroid nucleus.

• The combined hydrophobic and hydrophilic character of

some lipids causes them to aggregate into specific
structures when placed in water.

• Atherosclerosis is a metabolic disease in which fatty

material (plaque) is deposited on the inner walls of
arteries.
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Chapter 28 Summary
• Improper transport of cholesterol through the blood
system contributes to atherosclerosis. Lipoproteins
(specific protein-lipid aggregates) transport lipids
through the blood.

• A lipid bilayer is composed of two adjoining layers of

compound lipid molecules.

• Proteins aid passage of molecules through a lipid

bilayer.
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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

The hydrophobic nature of lipids has many important
biological consequences. The water insolubility of
lipids results in:

• lipid aggregation that causes atherosclerosis

• lipid aggregation that forms biological membranes

A lipid is in a hostile environment when it is surrounded

by water. Lipid molecules aggregate to minimize their
contact with water when in water.
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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

The hydrophilic part of lipid molecules is attracted to water
and forms an interface with it, but the hydrophobic part
distances itself from water molecules.

Complex lipids such as phospholipids and sphingolipids

have two hydrophobic alkyl groups.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Complex lipids form liposomes in aqueous mixtures.
Liposomes are bounded by two layers of lipid.

The hydrophobic alkyl chains are covered by hydrophilic

groups on both the liposome’s inside and outside.
Liposomes have a water core as shown below.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Atherosclerosis is a metabolic disease that leads to
deposits of cholesterol and other lipids on the inner
walls of the arteries. Blood pressure increases as the
heart works harder to pump sufficient blood through the
narrowed passages, which may eventually lead to heart
attack.

Plaque formation begins because of a lipid’s natural

tendency to aggregate.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Improper transport of cholesterol through the blood
contributes to atherosclerosis.

Cholesterol (and other lipids) must be packaged for

transport because lipids aggregate in the aqueous
bloodstream.

Lipids are packaged in particles called lipoproteins.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

The main types of lipoproteins are VLDL (very-low-
density lipoprotein), LDL (low-density lipoprotein)
and HDL (high-density lipoprotein).

The lipid distribution system through the bloodstream

using these lipoproteins is shown on the following
slide . . .

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 Chapter
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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

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Outline

Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Biological membranes are thin, semipermeable cellular
barriers. The general function of these barriers is to
exclude dangerous chemicals from the cell while
allowing nutrients to enter.

Because almost all the dangerous chemicals, nutrients,

and special molecules are water soluble, the membranes
can act as effective barriers only if they impede the
movement of hydrophilic (water-soluble) molecules.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

The hydrophobic interior of the membrane provides the
necessary barrier while the hydrophilic exterior
interacts with the aqueous environment.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Membrane lipids naturally aggregate to form lipid bilayers.
A lipid bilayer is composed of two adjoining layers of
lipid molecules aligned so that their hydrophobic
portions form the bilayer interior while their hydrophilic
portions form the bilayer exterior.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

All known cells in today’s world need a membrane that is
more complicated than a simple lipid bilayer.

A membrane must function as more than just a barrier.

Tasks such as passing molecules from one side of a
bilayer to the other are an essential part of life.

Proteins in the fluid bilayer solve this dilemma. They

allow specific molecular transport through the
hydrophobic interior.
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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

If the protein helps transport without using energy, the
process is called facilitated diffusion.

Energy-requiring transport is termed active transport.

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

A complete cellular membrane must have both lipid and
protein. A typical membrane includes about 60%
protein, 25% phospholipid, 10% cholesterol, and 5%
sphingolipid.

The fluid lipid bilayer is studded with many solid

proteins. The proteins form a random pattern on the
outer surface of the oily lipid. This general membrane
is called the fluid-mosaic model which is shown on the
next slide . . .
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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Which statement best describes the composition of a
biological membrane?

• Hydrophobic exterior and hydrophilic interior

• Hydrophilic exterior and hydrophobic interior
• Hydrophilic exterior and interior
• Hydrophobic exterior and interior

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Hydrophobic Lipids and Biology

Which statement best describes the composition of a
biological membrane?

• Hydrophobic exterior and hydrophilic interior

• Hydrophilic exterior and hydrophobic interior
• Hydrophilic exterior and interior
• Hydrophobic exterior and interior

Biological membranes have hydrophilic exteriors and

hydrophilic interiors.
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