Techniques of guidance

Dr. Rahila Nizami

 Techniques of guidance
• Testing techniques----- Counsellors use tests generally for assessment,
placements, and guidance and appraisals to assist clients to increase
their self-knowledge, practice decision making, and acquire new
behaviors
• Non-testing techniques---- this techniques was designed to allow the
individual in emotional turmoil to talk out problems and resolve
difficulties with a minimum of direction being provided by the person.
• These techniques provide a broader variable, a more subjective
approach to data gathering and human assessment
 Testing Techniques
What are the tests?
• It is a set of tasks or questions intended to elicit particular types of behavior
when presented under standardized conditions. It is expected to yield scores
that have desirable psychometric properties.
• This means that testing is the act of asking an individual a particular set of
questions in order to obtain a score. The score thus obtained is the end-
product of testing, and yields information needed when making a decision.
• According to Cronbach (1970), test is a systematic procedure for observing
and describing one or more characteristics of a person, with the aid of either
a numerical scale or a category system
• Testing is different from assessment in that assessment involves
comprehending, organizing, communicating and creating impressions. In
other words, it helps in the perception of a person in impression formation or
in attribution. In this way, using scores from a test, a counsellor can form an
image or model of the client with whom he/she deals. The image thus
formed is a set of hypotheses about a particular person, and his/her potential
 TESTING PROCESS

Steps involved in the process of using tests in counselling include the following:
1- Selecting the test----- Having defined the purpose for testing, the counsellor looks to a
variety of sources for information on available tests. Resources include review books, journals, test
manuals, and textbooks on testing and measurement (Anastasi, 1988; Cronbach, 1979). The most
complete source of information on a particular test is usually the test manual.

2- Administering test----- Test administration is usually standardize by the developers of the

test. Manual instructions need to be followed in order to make a valid comparison of an individual’s
score with the test’s norm group. Non – Standardization tests used in counselling are best given
under controlled circumstances. This allows the counsellor’s experience with the test to become an
internal norm. Issues of individual versus group administration need to be considered as well. The
clients and the purpose for which they are being tested will contribute to decisions about group
testing.

3- Scoring the test----- Scoring of tests follows the instructions provided in the test manual, the
Counsellor is sometimes given the option of having test machine scored rather than hand scored.
Both the positive and negative aspects of this choice need to be considered. It is usually believed
that test scoring is best handled by a machine because it is free from bias.
 TESTING PROCESS

Steps involved in the process of using tests in counselling include the following:

4- Interpreting results----- The interpretation of test results is usually the area

which allows for the greatest flexibility within the testing process. Depending upon
the Counsellor’s theoretical point of view and the extent of the test manual
guidelines, interpretation may be brief and superficial, or detailed and explicity
theory based (Tinsley & Bradley, 1986). Because this area allows for the greatest
flexibility, it is also the area with the greatest danger of misuse. Whereas scoring is
best done by a bias-free machine, interpretation by machine is often too rigid.
What is needed is the experience of a skilled test user to individualize the
interpretation of results.
5- Communicating the results----- Feedback of test results to the client completes
the formal process of testing. Here, the therapeutic skills of Counsellors come fully
into play (Phelps, 1974). The Counsellor uses verbal and non verbal interaction
skills to convey messages to clients and to assess their understanding of it
 ISSUES IN TESTING

• Confidentiality-----
• The trust issue, which is inherent in confidentiality, is relevant to every aspect of testing. No
information can be shared outside the relationship without the full consent of the client.
• Information is provided to someone outside the relationship only after the specifics to be
used from the testing are fully disclosed to the client.
• These specifics include the when, what, and to whom of the disclosure.
• The purpose of disclosure is also shared with the client and what the information will be
used for is clearly spelled out.
• Issues of confidentiality are best discussed with the client before conducting any test
administration.
• There should be no surprise when the counsellor asks, at a later time, for permission to
share results. Clients who are fully informed, before testing takes place, about the issue of
confidentiality in relation to testing are more active participants in the counselling process.
 Skills and Competencies for tests
• Tests are only as good as their construction, proper usage and the preparation
of the counsellor intending to use them. The skills and competencies
counsellors need or using tests in practice are to:
• Understand clearly the intended purpose of a test
• Beware of the client’s needs regarding the test to be given
• Having knowledge about the test, its validity, reliability and the norm group for
which it was developed
• Have personally taken the test before administering it
• Have been supervised in administering, scoring, interpreting, and
communicating results of the tests to be given
• Supervision in the practice of providing testing services ideally encompasses all
of the above areas of concern. This supervision needs to be conducted by the
knowledgeable practitioner with experience in using tests in clinical practice.
Testing techniques
• Psychological tests
• Teacher made tests
• Comprehensive and
continuous evaluation
 Psychological tests
• A psychological test is essentially an objective and standardized measure
of behavior.
• A psychological test is a standardized measure, and this refers to
uniformity of procedures in administering and scoring of the test.
Uniformity of procedures exists with regard to time limits, instructions,
and detailed directions for administering each test.
• Standardization also implies that norms (an established normal or
average performance on the test) are available.
• The following are some of the general uses of psychological tests given
by Cronbach (1970), Anastasi (1970), Shertzer and Stone (1966), and
Nitko (1983):
• Prediction----- A test is given to obtain a measure of ability, achievement
and other characteristics that provide a solid basis on which predictions
can be made as to what individuals will do at a later time
 Psychological tests
• Selection----- Tests are used by institutions and organizations for hiring
some individuals and rejecting others.
• Classification---- Classification is an arrangement according to a
systematic division into categories or groups. Classification involves
deciding which treatment to use or to which group a person should be
assigned. For example, after administering an intelligence test, individuals
can be categorized as geniuses or gifted, or retarded.
• Evaluation----- Tests are used to assess and evaluate programs, methods,
treatments, etc. Evaluation can be either formative or summative.
• Placement----- Tests can be used to place individuals in different groups
for instructional purposes or for particular tasks. For example, in a school
students may be placed in different mathematics classes, on the basis of
their scores in mathematical aptitude tests, and industry tests can be
used to place individuals in jobs requiring different skills.
 Psychological tests
• Counselling and Guidance---- Tests are frequently used to assist students
in exploring and choosing careers, and directing them to prepare for the
careers they select.
• A single test is not used for making guidance and counselling decisions.
Frequently, a series of tests is administered, including an interest
inventory, various aptitude tests, personality questionnaire, and
achievement tests.
• This information, along with additional background information, is
discussed with the student during a series of counselling sessions.
• This facilitates a student’s decision-making as he/she considers different
careers. Exploring career options is likely to be an on-going and changing
series of decisions occurring, perhaps, over long periods in a person’s life.
 Psychological tests

• The psychological characteristics that an individual

possesses may be divided into five broad
categories, each one of which is measurable by a
test or a set of tests. We have thus to use these five
types of test.
• Tests of Intelligence
• Test of abilities
• Tests of interests
• Tests of personality, and
• Tests of achievement
 Psychological tests
• Achievement tests measure the knowledge, abilities and skills that
result from instruction in school. They generally represent a terminal
evaluation of the individual’s status on the completion of training, e.g.,
O-level examinations.
• General ability tests measure the general intellectual development and
aptitude, or potential, of an individual. This include the general
academic ability, mental ability and intelligence. Such tests are useful as
diagnostic tools, e.g., intelligence and aptitude tests (intelligence and
knowledge, these are standardized tests).
• Intelligence tests provide a broad measure of overall or general ability
primarily related to one’s specific potential for learning. They measure
the intellectual and mental capabilities of the person whereas aptitude
tests focus more narrowly on specific factors. Aptitude tests measure
the wide range of career learning and performance potentials.
 Psychological tests
• Interest inventories measure what an individual likes or dislikes. In
guidance, information about an individual’s interests with regard to
vocation or career is very important. Such information may assist the
counsellor in guiding an individual along the line of his/her interest,
e.g., Kuder General Interest Survey.
• Personality tests measure such individual behavior, feelings and
attitudes, characteristics as emotional adjustment, interpersonal
relations, motivation and attitudes, e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI), creativity tests, plot titles for given
stories, series of pictures/words/letters.
 Teacher-made tests
• Teacher made tests are not governed by rigid processes. It is the
discretion of the teacher to include items on tests which he/she believes
matters
• These are written and oral assessments that are not commercially
produced
• Teacher-made tests are normally prepared and administered for testing
class­room achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching
adopted by the teacher and other curricular program of the school.
• These tests consists of variety of formats, including matching items, fill-
in-blank items, true-false questions and essays
• An effective teacher-made test should address two or more intelligences.
Teachers who include strategies and tools such as graphic organizers,
student choice and opportunities for oral answers meet the needs of
their diverse students
 Teacher made tests

• It is prepared to measure the outcomes and content of local

curriculum. It is very much flexible so that, it can be adopted to any
procedure and material. It does not require any sophisticated
technique for preparation
• The test results can be used for student, teachers and other
administrative purposes
• These are simple to use
• Easy for students
• Teacher can assess the strengths and weaknesses of students
• Tests are conducted continuously and student get immediate
feedback
• Teachers can understand the need for re-teaching concepts and can
decide remedial instruction
 Teacher made tests

• These tests are not scientifically prepared

• The items of teacher-made tests are seldom analysed and edited
• The type of behavioural changes covered are often limited in scope
• Reliability is unknown
• Prepared by teachers for their requirements so limited area of application
• The items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty.
• The test covers the whole content area and includes a large number of items.
• A teacher-made test does not cover all the steps of a standardized test.
• Teacher-made tests may also be employed as a tool for formative evaluation.
• Preparation and administration of these tests are economical.
• The test is developed by the teacher to ascertain the student’s achievement
and proficiency in a given subject.
• Teacher-made tests are least used for research purposes.
Matching Items
Completion
Type
Multiple
Choice
True/False
Methods of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
• The three domains of educational objectives would be the area of
concentration in discussing the methods of continuous assessment.
• The three domains are: cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains
• Cognitive domain deals with rational, intellectual thought
processes and is concerned with knowledge outcomes, information
intellectual skills and liabilities.
• The method of assessing the cognitive domain are:
• (i) Paper and paper test (ii) Oral discussions (iii) Questioning (iv)
Written assignments (v) Projects
Methods of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
• Affective domain lays emphasis on attitudes, interest, values,
appreciations, feelings and emotions including modes of adjustment
as well as attendance and punctuality to classes. Method of
gathering information on/about a student in the affective domain
are:
• (i) Questionnaire (ii) Oral interview/discussion (iii) Inventories (iv)
Observation
• Psychomotor is concerned with muscular and motor skills including
the manipulation of materials requiring the eye and hand
coordination with body movements.
• Observation is basically the most effective method for assessing
students in the area of psychomotor domain. Specifically observation
schedule is prepared to address particular area of assessment.
 Role of teachers/counsellor in the practice of
continuous comprehensive evaluation in schools
• Keep in close watch and assess the personality development of each student in
such traits as:
• (i) Character; (ii) Temperament; (iii) Interest; (iv) Attitude; and (v)
Adjustment.
• Obtain information concerning students’ learning and personality characteristics,
which should be used for both academic and psychological advertisement of
the student.
• Convert raw scores to more meaningful scores for both academic and
psychological advice for the students.
• Give appropriate weights to the scores from different sources.
• Combine scores from different measures to get an overall score.
• Possess skills in interpreting scores from assessment instrument.
• Possess skills in keeping records and preparing reports.
 Continuous and Comprehensive
Evaluation
• Provides the trust and most comprehensive picture of each student’s
ability in a school setting than could be got from a single
examination.
• Serves as a monitoring device giving feedback to the pupils about
his/her performance and also to the teacher about effectiveness of
his teaching.
• Provides information on the strengths and weaknesses of students
with a view to applying immediate corrective measures.
• Provides reliable information about students on the basis of which
guidance services can be rendered by the teacher and the school
counsellor.
 Problems of Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation
• Use of different standards of measuring performance from school to
school.
• Transfer among students from school to school.
• Task of operating continuous assessment without appropriate
remuneration to the teachers.
• Insufficient provision of materials and the financial cost of applying
continuous assessment procedures.
• Poor teacher and teaching qualities in schools.
• Lack of standardization of most continuous assessment tests and grades.