The Formation of Ions

•An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons

•An atom will lose or gain electrons to become more stable
•The loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of electrons which is a more stable arrangement of electrons
•The electronic configuration of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas – such as helium, neon and argon
 Formation of negatively charged chloride ion
 Ionisation of metals and non-metals
•Metals: all metals can lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions, known as cations
•Non-metals: all non-metals can gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged ions, known as anions

The Formation of Ionic Bonds

•Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms react with non-metal atoms
•Metal atoms lose their outer electrons which the non-metal atoms gain to form positive and negative ions
•The positive and negative ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between opposite charges
•This force of attraction is known as an ionic bond and they hold ionic compounds together
 

Dot-and-cross diagrams
•Dot and cross diagrams are diagrams that show the arrangement of the outer-shell electrons in
an ionic or covalent compound or element
• The electrons are shown as dots and crosses
•In a dot and cross diagram:
• Only the outer electrons are shown
• The charge of the ion is spread evenly which is shown by using brackets
• The charge on each ion is written at the top right-hand corner
 Ionic bonding
(metal + non-metal)

Ionic bonds form a giant

lattice structure
 Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound formed by the reaction
between the metal sodium and the non-metal chlorine.

sodium chlorine sodium chloride

Na + Cl NaCl

During the reaction, one electron is transferred from each

sodium atom to each chlorine atom.
Lattice structure
•Ionic compounds have a giant lattice structure
•Lattice structure refers to the arrangement of the atoms of a substance in 3D space
•In lattice structures, the atoms are arranged in an ordered and repeating fashion
•The lattices formed by ionic compounds consist of a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions

Properties of Ionic Compounds

•Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature 
•They have high melting and boiling points
•Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or in solution 
•They are poor conductors in the solid state

•Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence of strong electrostatic forces acting between the
oppositely charged ions
•These forces act in all directions and a lot of energy is required to overcome them
•The greater the charge on the ions, the stronger the electrostatic forces and the higher the melting point will be
• For example, magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ and O2- so will have a higher melting point than sodium chloride
which contains the ions, Na+ and Cl
•For electrical current to flow there must be freely moving charged particles such as electrons or ions present 
•Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in the molten state or in solution as they have ions that can move and
carry a charge
•They are poor conductors in the solid state as the ions are in fixed positions within the lattice and are unable to move
Sodium chloride
Sodium has 1 electron in its outer shell. Chlorine has 7 electrons in its outer shell. If it
If it loses this electron, it will have no gains 1 electron, it will completely fill its
partially-filled shells. outer shell.

-
+

Na Cl

2.8.1 [2.8]+ 2.8.7 [2.8.8]-

Sodium chloride
The positive sodium ions and the negative chloride ions are strongly
attracted to each other and form an ionic bond.

-
+

Na Cl
Lithium Oxide
+

Li
2-

2.1 [2]+ O

Li

2.6 [2.8]2-
 -
Magnesium fluoride
F

2+

Mg 2.7 [2.8]-
-

2.8.2 [2.8]2+
Magnesium Oxide
Explain how magnesium oxide is
formed.

• Magnesium loses 2 electrons

• Oxygen gains 2 electron
• Magnesium becomes 2+ ion
• Oxygen becomes 2- ion
• Held to together in ionic lattice
Calcium chloride - CaCl2
Explain how CaCl2 is formed:

• Calcium loses 2 electrons

• Each chlorine atom gains 1 electron
• Two chlorine atoms needed
• Forms ionic bond
 Covalent bonding
(non-metal + non-metal)

Simple molecules Giant covalent structures

Simple molecules HYDROGEN

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE

MOLECULE

H H H H
Hydrogen atom needs Another hydrogen
one electron to
complete its outer shell
atom also needs one
electron to complete H H
its outer shell
atoms share a pair of electrons to
form a single covalent bond
A hydrogen MOLECULE is formed
Simple molecules HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Cl H

Hydrogen atom also

needs one electron to
Chlorine atom needs
complete its outer shell
one electron to
complete its outer
shell

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

atoms share a pair of

H Cl H Cl electrons to form a single
covalent bond
Simple molecules
AMMONIA WAYS TO REPRESENT
THE MOLECULE

H N H

H H
Each hydrogen N
atom needs
one electron to
complete its
H H N H
Nitrogen atom needs 3
outer shell
H
electrons to complete its
outer shell H
Nitrogen can only share 3 of its 5
electrons otherwise it will exceed
the maximum of 8
A LONE PAIR REMAINS
 Covalent bonding - molecules
Hydrogen - H2 (g) Oxygen - O2 (g)

Chlorine - Cl2 (g)

Hydrogen chloride
HCl (g)

Methane – CH4 (g)

Water – H2O (l) Ammonia – NH3 (g)

Limitations of using models – doesn’t show
the shape
In a metal the atoms LOSE SEVERAL OF THEIR OUTER
ELECTRONS which drift around between the metal ions as
FREE ELECTRONS.

Atoms become
POSITIVE ions
because they have
LOST electrons

Free (“delocalised”)
electrons
 Metallic bonding
• Metals have a structure of positive metal ions held together by a “sea”
of electrons – causes electrostatic attraction
• We call these electrons delocalized
• Ions are arranged in layers
• Forms a giant lattice structure
Predicting states using melting and boiling
points
Substance Melting Point Boiling Point State at room
(˚C) (˚C) temperature
Water 0 99.98 Liquid
Carbon Dioxide -78 -57 Gas
Methane -182 -164 Gas
Hydrogen -259.1 -252.8 Gas
Ammonia -77.73 -33.34 Gas

Melting point Boiling point

Solid Liquid Gas

 State Symbols

(s) – solid

(l) – liquid

(g) – gas

(aq) – dissolved in water

NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

Properties of ionic compounds – giant lattices

High Melting point – lots of ENERGY needed to break the strong

bonds (strong electrostatic attraction)

Solubility - Can dissolve in water which enables the ions to move

Conduction - When MOLTEN or DISSOLVED IN WATER, ionic

compounds can conduct electricity because the ions can carry
current/charge (not electricity)
Covalent bonding – simple molecules
Hydrogen - H2 (g) Oxygen - O2 (g) Properties of covalent compounds
• A covalent bond is a shared pair of
Chlorine - Cl2 (g) Methane – CH4 (g)
electrons

• Substances that consist of simple

molecules are gases, liquids or solids
Hydrogen chloride that have relatively low melting points
HCl (g)
and boiling points due to weak
intermolecular bonds
Ammonia – NH3 (g)
Water – H2O (l)
• They do not conduct electricity because
the molecules do not have an overall
electric charge. No free electrons or
ions.
 Polymers

• Molecules are linked with strong covalent bonds

• Intermolecular forces between polymers are relatively strong
• Polymers are usually solid at room temperature
 Giant covalent structure of diamond

Carbon structures - diamond

Diamond
• Diamond is made only from carbon atoms.
• Every carbon makes four covalent bonds to achieve a full outer shell.

• Every carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms.

• This means the structure keeps on growing!
• We make a Giant Covalent Structure.
Key properties –
• Diamond is very hard.
• High melting points – because it has strong covalent bonds
(which take a lot of energy to break)
 Giant covalent structure of graphite
Carbon structures - graphite
Graphite
• Graphite is made only from carbon atoms.
• Every carbon makes 3 covalent bonds to achieve a full outer shell.
• Forms hexagonal rings, arranged in layers
• Weak intermolecular forces between the layers
• Every carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms

Key properties – • High melting point

• Graphite is very soft. • Conducts electricity – free
• Slippery – arranged in layers electrons
Metallic bonding – giant structures
Conducts electricity and heat
Delocalised electrons can move
through the structure

Malleable
Ions arranged in layers so ions are
able to slide over each other

High melting and boiling points

Ions held together by strong
electrostatic attraction so needs a
lot of energy to break the bonds
 Metallic bonding - alloys

Alloys

• Mixture of metals of
different sizes.

• Distorts the layers

• Layers can’t slide

Covalent bonding - Giant
Besides graphite and diamond, carbon can also
form another type of giant covalent structure.

Fullerenes (named after the scientists that

discovered them) are made by conjoined
hexagonal carbon rings

Possible uses of Fullerenes in the future could be:

• Drug delivery
• In lubricants
• As catalysts in reactions
• To make carbon nanotubes to reinforce structures