MICROBIAL GENETICS

HARDY WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM PRINCIPLE

PRESENTED BY
NISHA KUMARI. D
1st MSc
MICROBIOLOGY
 CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DEFINITION :SPECIES
3. POPULATION GENETICS
4. GENE POOL
5. GENE FREQUENCIES
6. GENOTYPE FREQUENCY
7. HARDY WEINBERG EQUATION
8. EXAMPLES
L
9. HARDY WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM PRINCIPLE
10.FIVE FACTORS
11.SIGNIFICANCE
12.CONCULSION
13.REFERENC
 INTRODUCTION

In first decade of the Twentieth

century. G.H .hardy and W.
Weinberg discovered
independently mathematical
frequencies in 1908 to find out
the gene and genotype
frequencies in population for a
particular gene these formula or
principle regarding frequencies of
gene and genotype is known as
Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
principle or Hardy Weinberg Law Godferey Harold Hardy Wilhelm .Weinberg
Hardy Weinberg Law states that “ The relative frequencies of various
kinds of gene and alleles in a large and randomly mating (Panmictic)
population tends to remain constant from generation to generation
in the absence of mutation, natural selection and gene flow”

A better understanding of the law needs a knowledge of Mendelian

population. gene pool and gene frequencies and genotype frequency.

Species: Group of individual Capable of Interbreeding is called species

Population : Number of Individuals of a single species in a particular

habitation at a given time is called Population .

• Population splits in to several Interbreeding group and An interbreeding

group of a population which occurs at community is known as
Mendelian population or genetic population
GENE POOL:
● The Sum of total of genus of all the individual in a Mendelian
population is known as Gene pool
● It includes all the gene of all the individuals of a population by this we
study about the number of gene variety of gene and type of genes
found in population
● Maintains its integrity as long as there is no interbreeding
● Tried to maintains genetic equilibrium.
● Size of gene pool depends on the number of gene and the number of
individuals carry these genes.
courtesy :goolge image
GENE FREQUENCY
● It refers to the proportions of an alleles in the gene pool of
population as compared with other genes at same locus
● It can be calculated by dividing the Number of a particular allele in
question with the total Number of allele present on that locus in
the population
● For a gene with 2 alleles say A and a has following proportion of
contribution
● IN A POPULATION :
● N=Total Number of individuals in the population
● D=Number of homozygous dominants
● H= Number of heterozygous individuals
● R=Number of homozygous recessive
CALCULATING GENE FREQUENCIES

● Total Number of Individuals =N

● Total Number of alleles. =2N
● Number of homozygous dominant =D
● Number of recessive homozygous =R
● Number of heterzygous =H
● Total number of dominant alleles =2D+H
● Total number of recessive alleles. =2R+H
● Frequency of dominant genes ‘A’=2D+H/2H
● Frequency of recessive alleles ‘a‘=2R+H/2N
GENOTYPE FREQUENCY
It's is the total number of one kind of individuals from a population all of
which exhibit similar character with respect to the locus consideration
It can be calculated by dividing the number of individuals with that
genotype by the total number of individuals in the population

Naturally Three kinds of individuals occurs in the population :

● Homozygous dominant
● Heterozygous and
● Homozygous recessive
CALCULATION OF GENOTYPE FREQUENCY

● Allele frequency of ‘A’ allele = p

● Allele frequency of ‘a’ allele = q
● Genotype frequency of AA = p2
● Genotype frequency of aa = q2
● Genotype frequency of Aa = 2pq
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUATION
The relationship between gene frequency and genotype frequency can
be expressed as: (p+q)2=1
Where p=is the frequency of alleles = ‘A’
q=is the frequency of alleles = ‘a’
the equation
p+q=1
p2+2pq+q2=1
A gene had two allele A and a
The frequency of alleles A is represented by p
The frequency of alleles a is represented by q
The frequency of Homozygous dominant genotype .AA = p2
The frequency of Homozygous recessive genotype. aa = p2
The frequency of heterozygous genotype. Aa = 2pq
It's states “both gene frequencies and genotype frequency will remain
constant from generation to generation in an infinitely large
interbreeding population in which mating is at random and no
selection, migration or mutation occurs”

Courtesy :goolge images

 Allele frequency remain constant when?
According to hardy Weinberg equilibrium principle or Law.
The gene and genotype frequencies of each in a
population remains at equilibrium generations after
generation . If it exhibit following attributes:

1. Random mating
2.larger population size
3.Bi-parental Mode of reproduction
4.Homogenous age structure
5.Absence of evolutionary force
6.No preferential mating
Examples: Frequencies of Multiple allele
For ABO Blood group

Courtesy :google images

In a pygmy group in central Africa, the frequencies of alleles determining the ABO blood
group were estimated as 0.74 for IO 0.16 for IA, and 0.10 for IB. Assuming random
mating .what are the expected frequencies of ABO genotype and phenotype?
 Hardy -Weinberg for X-linked alleles : example Human and Drosophila (XX=Female, XY=Male)

Females: Hardy Weinberg frequencies are the same for any other locus .p2+2pq+q2 =1
Males: Genotype frequency are the same as allele frequencies. P + q = 1
Recessive X-linked traits are more common among males
Destabilizing force of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium

1.A natural biological population is dynamic which is the theoretical static

Hardy Weinberg model of genetic population
2.Its gene equilibrium changes from generation to the next generation by
the disruptive action of evolutionary force.
3.Study of the effect of certain destabilizing force was done by R.A
Fischer ,Sewell wright and J.B.S Haldane and thus the dynamic of
changing population was emphasized.
The evolutionary force are those the gene pool of the population and
thus evolution take place.
These are factor are the five factor are known to affect
Hardy Weinberg equilibrium

1.Natural selection
2.mutation
3.Genetic drift
4. Gene Migration or Gene Flow
5.Genetic recombination
NATURAL SELECTION
●Natural selection as the guiding force of evolution was recognized by
Charles Darwin. But this concept was applicable to individual rather than to
the population.
●It is the genotype which changes under the influence of Environment,
Variation caused by in the gene and in the chromosome which
produces heritable variation in the organisms and thus in the
population.

●Types of Natural selection :Based on the different organism environment

relationship. Following different kinds of Natural selection have been
recognised.

1.Directional selection
2.Stabilizing selection
3.Distruptive selection
When individuals at one end of the curve have higher fitness than
individual in the middle or at the other end directional
selection occurs. The range of phenotype shifts because some
individuals are more successful at surviving and reproducing than are
other
Example, consider how limited resources ,such as food can affect
individuals fitness among seed-eating birds such as Darwin finches, birds
with bigger thicker beaver can feed more easily on larger, harder, thicker
shelled seeds suppose the supply of small and medium-size seed runs low
leaving only larger seeds birds with larger beak would have an easier
time feeding than would small -beaked birds . Big-beaked would therefore
be more successful in surviving and passing gene to the next generation
over time the average beak size of the population would probably
increase.

Courtesy :google images

Courtesy :google images
●When individuals near the centre of the curve have higher fitness than
individuals at either end stabilizing selection take place. This situation
keep the centre of the curve at its current position ,but narrow the
curve
Example, The mass of human infants at birth is under the influence at birth
is under the influence of stabilizing selection. Very small babies are
likely to be less healthy and thus less likely to survive babies who are
much larger than average are likely to have difficulty being born. The
fitness of these small or larger babies is, therefore lower than that of more
average -size individuals.
Courtesy :google images
When individuals at the outer ends of the curve have higher fitness
than individuals near the middle of the curve, disruptive selection
occurs, Disruptive selection act against individuals of an
intermediate type.

If the pressure of natural selection is strong and last long enough

this situation . Can causes the single curve to split in to two. In
other words, Disruptive selection creates two distinct phenotype.

Example, suppose a bird population lives in an area where medium size

needs become. less common and larger and small seeds become more
common Birds with unusually small or large beak would have higher
fitness with disruptive selection, the population might split into teo group
one with smaller beak and one with larger beak.
Courtesy :google images
MUTATION

● If can be stated as any change in the normal Nucleotide

sequence of a gene
● It acts to create new alleles that changes the normal equilibrated
gene pool of a population
● It occurs at random in without any regard for any possible benefit or
disadvantage to the organisms
● To see the effect of any mutation that occurred in a population :
● The allele evaluated must produce distinctive phenotype that can be
distinguished from a normal phenotype
● Loss or gain of a segment of DNA deletion /Duplication /inversion/
Translocated, point mutation change in a single base pair of DNA.
Example :change in allele frequency due formation Where
Destabilizing force of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
1. A natural biological population is dynamic which is the theoretical static
Hardy Weinberg model of genetic population
2. Its gene equilibrium changes from generation to the next generation by
the disruptive action of evolutionary force.
3. Study of the effect of certain destabilizing force was done by R.A.
Fischer ,Sewell wright and J.B.S Haldane and thus the dynamic of
changing population was emphasized.
The evolutionary force are those the gene pool of the population and
thus evolution take place.
These are the five factor are known to Hardy Weinberg
equilibrium principle :

1.Natural selection
2.mutation
3.Genetic drift
4. Gene migration (Gene flow)
5.Genetic recombination
GENETIC DRIFT: In small population, significant random, fluctuation
in allele frequencies are possible through chance

● This degree of fluctuation due increase as the population size

decrease . This fluctuation due to chance is known as the genetic drift.

Genetic drift can arise due to:

● Bottleneck effect
● Founder effect
Bottleneck effect: It develops when a large population undergoes a drastic
but temporary reduction in numbers.
● It occurs it too small to ensure that all the alleles in the gene pool will be
passed on the next generation in their existing frequencies

Founder effect: Genetic drift may also when a new individuals colonize a new
habitat these founding individuals may carry alleles that differ in relative
frequencies from those of the main population. Just by chance. The new
gene pool may therefore start out with allele frequencies different from
those of the parent gene pool
● A change in allele frequencies as a result of migration of a small subgroup of a
population

Example: The founder effect is the evolution of several hundred species of fruit flies
on different Hawaiian Islands all those descended from the Mainland fruit fly
population .However species on different islands have allele frequencies that are
different from those of the original species
GENE MIRGATION (GENE FLOW) :

● A species become divided into population that are separated

geographically
● Migration occurs which individuals more between the population
● Example : In a given species a given locus has 2 alleles A and a
● There two population of this species, one on the Mainland and one
on an Island.
● The frequency of A on the Mainland is represented by Pm and the
frequency of a on the Island is P1
● If there occurs migration from the Mainland to the island , the
frequency of A in the next generation on the island is given by
P1=(1-m) P1 +mPm

Where m represented migrants from the mainland to the islands.

Courtesy : google images
GENETICS RECOMBINATION or NON RANDOM MATING :

● If change the frequencies of genotype in a given population

● Any one genotype has equal probability of mating any other
genotype in the population
● Subsequent, selection for or against certain genotype has the
potential to affect. The overall frequencies of the alleles they contain
● Non Random mating can take one of several form :
● Positive assortative mating similar genotype are more likely to
make than dissimilar once.
● Negative assortative mating dissimilar genotype more likely to
SIGNIFICANCE OF HARDY WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM
PRINCIPLE :
● Describe a situation in which there is genetic equilibrium and no evolution
● Provide a theoretical base for measuring evolutionary changes
● Conserve gain made in the past
● Avoid too rapid change
● Maintains heterozygous in the population
● Prevent evolutionary progress.
CONCULSION :
● No population is ideal as per the Mendelian laws It undergoes dynamic
change that alter the gene frequencies which ultimately bring about a
new and different gene pool for a population
● These destabilizing force add on or remove for a population allele
frequencies that causes a new species or a new population to be
● Mating must be random with no selection for certain genotype
● There must be no emigration or immigration and no mutation
● There may be no insect nous mating
● As show by Hardy and Weinberg, allele, segregation in population tend
to establish equilibrium with reference to each other.
● Thus if two allele should occur in equal proportion in a large, isolated
breeding population and neither expected to remain in equal proportion
generation after generation. According to Hardy Weinberg equation the
frequency of p and q in a population remains constant generation after
generation unless there any factor’s influence or disturb. p2+2pq+q2=1
REFERENCES

● T. Strachan and A. P Read, Human Molecular Genetics,

Blackwell
● A textbook on Organic Evolution by V. B Rastogi
● http://www.zianet.com/donaghe /Bio-U1-Ch02-2-
GeneticChange.html
● www.biologydiscusion.com
● www.sciencedirect.com
● Strikeberg, M.W.Jones, and Barrette publisher. Boston
London.