SOCIAL CHANGE

THEORIES AND
DEVELOPMENT
PERSPECTIVES
▸ According to the Miriam – Webster
Dictionary, development can be defined as
the process of growth and differentiation; it
could also means gradual advancement
▸ In sociological aspect, development means as
“improvement in country’s economic and
social conditions”. More specially, it refers to
improvements in way of managing an area’s
natural and human resources. In order to
create wealth and improve people’s lives.
▸ Dudley Seers while elaborating on the
meaning of development suggests that
while there can be value judgments on
what is development and what is not, it
should be a universally acceptable aim of
development to make for conditions that
lead to a realization of the potentials of
human personality.
▸ One aspect of development in
sociological context is the improvement
of social conditions or to put it simply,
the quality of life: access to education
and health care, employment
opportunities, availability of clean air and
safe drinking water, the threat of crime,
and so on. (World Bank)
▸ United Nations emphasize “human
development,” measured by life expectancy,
adult literacy, access to all three levels of
education, as well as people’s average income
which is a necessary condition of their
freedom of choice.
▸ In a broader sense the notion of human
development incorporates all aspects of
individuals’ well-being, from their health
status to their economic and political
freedom.
▸ Another aspect of development in
sociological context is economic growth;
increasing a nation’s total wealth, which
enhances the nation’s potential for
reducing poverty and solving other social
problems.
▸ Human development is the end—
economic growth a means.
Sustainable Development

▸ Sustainable Development according in

the, Brundtland Report in 1987, is defined
as “development that meets the needs and
aspirations of the present without
compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”.
▸ It is how we balance social, economic,
and environmental needs.
▸ It is an approach to development that looks to
balance different, and often competing, needs
against an awareness of the environmental,
social and economic limitations we face as a
society.
▸ It is about finding better ways of doing
things, both for the future and the present. We
might need to change the way we work and
live now, but this doesn't mean our quality of
life will be reduced.
▸ Example: Instead of driving your car
or riding a public transport vehicle,
switching to walking or cycling for
short journeys will save you money,
improve your health and is often just
as quick and convenient.
▸ Using clean sources of energy such as
wind power and solar energy instead
of fossil fuels.
Social Work and Sustainable Development

▸ Social work may contribute through

enhancing capabilities of people and building
social capital (Peeters, 2012)
 ▸ So we can apply the Rothman's Three Models
of Community Organizing
>Locality/Community Development
>Social Planning
>Social Action
Participatory Development
▸ Participatory development is a process
through which stakeholders can influence and
share control over development initiatives,
and over the decisions and resources that
affect themselves.” –( Framework for
Mainstreaming Participatory Development
Processes into Bank Operations, ADB. 1996)
▸ The objective of economic and
social development is to set in
motion a process of self-reliant
and sustainable growth through
which social justice can be
achieved.
Principles of Participation
Effective participation rests on respecting a number of
key principles, such as those identified by Egger and
Majeres (1998):
▸ ƒInclusion – of all people, or representatives of all
groups who will be affected by the results of a
decision or a process, such as a development
project.
▸ ƒEqual Partnership – recognizing that every
person has skill, ability and initiative and has equal
right to participate in the process regardless of their
status.
▸ Transparency – all participants must
help to create a climate conducive to
open communication and building
dialogue.
▸ ƒSharing Power – authority and
power must be balanced evenly
between all stakeholders to avoid the
domination of one party.
 ▸ Sharing responsibility – similarly, all stakeholders have
equal responsibility for decisions that are made, and each
should have clear responsibilities within each process.
▸ ƒ Empowerment – participants with special skills should be
encouraged to take responsibility for tasks within their
specialty, but should also encourage others to also be
involved to promote mutual learning and empowerment.
▸ ƒ Cooperation – cooperation is very important; sharing
everybody’s strength reduces everybody’s weaknesses.
These principles for effective participation can be applied to all
aspects of the development process or project.
Degrees of Participation
(Adapted from Arnstein 1971; Pimbert and Pretty
1994; Wilcox 1994; Lane 1995; Pretty et al. 1995;
UNDP 1997; Jeffrey and Vitra (eds) 2001).
▸ Manipulation - This is a form of
participation where the public and the
observer is “manipulated” into thinking that
public participation is in progress.
▸ Passive participation - participation
by the local people is by being told
what is going to happen or has already
happened. It is based on information
provided, shared and assessed by
external “experts.” Therefore, the
information being shared belongs
only to external experts.
▸ Participation in information giving - this is
a one-way approach to participation whereby
participation is by answering questions posed
by extractive researchers using questionnaire
surveys or similar approaches. Participants
are informed of their rights, responsibilities
and options, but are not given the opportunity
to influence proceedings, as the findings are
neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
▸ Participation by consultation - This is a two-way way
flow of information in which local people participate by
being consulted and external agents listen to their
views. Although participants have the opportunity to
provide suggestions and express concerns, their input
may or may not be used at all or as originally intended.
The external agents define problems and solutions, both
of which may be modified in light of information
provided by the participants. Such a consultations
process does not concede any share in decision-making
and professionals are under no obligation to take on
people’s view.
▸ Participation for material incentives -
people participate by providing resources, for
example labour, in return for food, cash, or
other material incentives. Much on-farm
research falls into this category, as farmers
provide the fields but are not involved in
experimentation or the process of learning. In
this type of participation people have no stake
in prolonging activities once the incentives
end.
▸ Functional participation - people participate
by forming groups to meet predetermined
objectives related to the initiative. Local
people’s involvement however occurs after
major decisions have been made rather than at
an early stage in the project cycle. The
established groups are dependent on external
initiators and facilitators, but over time may
become more self-sufficient.
▸ Interactive participation - people participate in joint
analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation
of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing
ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies
that seek multiple perspectives, and make use of
systematic and structured learning processes. As local
people take control over the decision-making process,
they gain a greater stake in maintaining the structures
and practices they have established. A common
drawback is that vulnerable individuals and groups tend
to remain silent or passively acquiesce.
▸ Partnership - through negotiation, power is
redistributed between local people and power
holders in an equitable manner. Decision-making
takes place through an exchange between equally
respected participants who are working towards a
common goal and seeking to optimize the well-
being of all concerned. There is mutual
responsibility and risk-sharing in the planning and
decision-making process.
▸ Self-mobilization/active participation - people
participate by taking initiatives independent of
external institutions to change systems. They
develop contacts with external institutions for
resources and technical advice that they need, but
retain control over how resources are used. Such
self-initiated mobilization and collective action may
or may not challenge existing inequitable
distribution of wealth or power.
▸ Social change - refers to any significant
alteration over time in behavior patterns and
cultural values and norms. By “significant”
alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding
profound social consequences.
▸ is conceptualized as the process of planned or
unplanned qualitative and quantitative
alterations in social phenomena that can be
analyzed in terms of five interrelated
components:
▸ Identity – refers to specific social
phenomenon undergoing transformation such
as definite practice, behavior, attitude,
interaction pattern
▸ Level – delineates the location in a social
system where a particular change takes place
– e.g. group, organization, institution, society
▸ Duration – refers to the question of how long
a particular change form endures after it has
been accepted.
▸ Magnitude – may be based on a three
part scheme of incremental or
marginal, comprehensive, and
revolutionary changes.
▸ Rate – may be based on any arbitrary
scale such as fast or slow, continuous
or spasmodic, orderly or erratic.
In exploring these theories and
perspectives, some basic considerations
for social workers may include:
▸ Their assumptions about the nature of
people, societal processes and
structures
▸ Their scope in explaining the
phenomenon of change
▸ Their implications for transformative
actions
August Comte
▸ Comte conceptualized 3 stages of social
evolution which relate both to the
development of human thought from
primitive superstition to modern scientific
reason, and to the changing order which the
evolution of consciousness gives rise to.

Stages of Development Dominant Mode of Thought Dominant Social Groups

Theological Supernatural/Religious Priests and warriors
Metaphysical Philosophical/Theoretical Lawyers and Theologians
Positive Scientific Scientists and Engineers
Ferdinand Toennies
▸ Toennies describe the evolution of
society from Gemeinschaft to
Gesselschaft. Tönnies’s conception of
the nature of social systems is based
on his distinction between the
Gemeinschaft (communal society)
and the Gesellschaft (associational
society).
▸ In the rural, peasant societies that typify the
Gemeinschaft, personal relationships are
defined and regulated on the basis of
traditional social rules. People have simple
and direct face-to-face relations with each
other that are determined by Wesenwille
(natural will)—i.e., natural and spontaneously
arising emotions and expressions of
sentiment.
▸ The Gesellschaft, in contrast, is the creation
of Kürwille (rational will) and is typified by
modern, cosmopolitan societies with their
government bureaucracies and large
industrial organizations. In the Gesellschaft,
rational self-interest and calculating conduct
act to weaken the traditional bonds of family,
kinship, and religion that permeate the
Gemeinschaft’s structure. In the Gesellschaft,
human relations are more impersonal and
indirect, being rationally constructed in the
interest of efficiency or other economic and
political considerations
Walt W. Rostow
▸ Rostow formulated the stages of economic growth
model which is one of the major historical models
of economic growth
1. Traditional society
 characterized by subsistence agriculture or hunting
and gathering; almost wholly a "primary" sector
economy
 limited technology
 A static or 'rigid' society: lack of class or individual
economic mobility, with stability prioritized and
change seen negatively
2. Pre-conditions to "take-off"
 external demand for raw materials initiates economic
change;
 development of more productive, commercial agriculture
and cash crops not consumed by producers and/or largely
exported
 widespread and enhanced investment in changes to the
physical environment to expand production (i.e. irrigation,
canals, ports)
 increasing spread of technology and advances in existing
technologies
 changing social structure, with previous social equilibrium
now in flux
 individual social mobility begins
 development of national identity and shared economic
interests
3. Take off
 Urbanization increases, Industrialization
proceeds, technological breakthrough occurs
 the "secondary" (goods-producing) sector
expands and ratio of secondary vs. primary
sectors in the economy shifts quickly towards
secondary
 textiles and apparel are usually the first "take-
off" industry, as happened in Great Britain's
classic "Industrial Revolution"
4. Drive to maturity
 diversification of the industrial base; multiple industries
expand and new ones take root quickly
 manufacturing shifts from investment-driven (capital
goods) towards consumer durables and domestic
consumption
 rapid development of transportation infrastructure
 large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools,
universities, hospitals, etc.)
5. Age of mass consumption
 the industrial base dominates the economy; the
primary sector is of greatly diminished weight
in economy and society
 widespread and normative consumption of
high-value consumer goods (e.g. automobiles)
 consumers typically (if not universally), have
disposable income, beyond all basic needs, for
additional goods
Structural Functionalism
▸ This approach looks at society through a
macro-level orientation, which is a broad
focus on the social structures that shape
society as a whole, and believes that society
has evolved like organisms. This approach
looks at both social structure and social
functions. Functionalism addresses society as
a whole in terms of the function of its
constituent elements; namely norms, customs,
traditions, and institutions.
▸ It sees society as a complex
system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity
and stability.
Historical Materialism
▸ Marx’s general ideas about society are
known as his theory of historical
materialism. Materialism is the basis
of his sociological thought because
for Marx material conditions or
economic factors affect the structure
and development of society.
 ▸ Marx postulated that every society, whatever
its stage of historical development, rests on
economic foundation – the mode of
production which has two elements
 Forces of Production – physical or
technological arrangements of economic
activity
 Social Relations of Production – the pattern of
organization, management and exploitation by
those who own the means of production of
those whose work creates the product
 ▸ The successive stages in the development of
history are characterized by the type of
economic production:
 Tribal ownership, a type of primitive
communism
 Ancient or slave mode of production
 Feudal mode of production
 Capitalism
 Communism
Dependency Theory
▸ Dependency Theory developed in the late
1950s under the guidance of the Director of
the United Nations Economic Commission
for Latin America, Raul Prebisch. Prebisch
and his colleagues were troubled by the fact
that economic growth in the advanced
industrialized countries did not necessarily
lead to growth in the poorer countries.
Indeed, their studies suggested that economic
activity in the richer countries often led to
serious economic problems in the poorer
countries.
▸ Prebisch's initial explanation for the
phenomenon was very straightforward: poor
countries exported primary commodities to
the rich countries that then manufactured
products out of those commodities and sold
them back to the poorer countries. The "Value
Added" by manufacturing a usable product
always cost more than the primary products
used to create those products. Therefore,
poorer countries would never be earning
enough from their export earnings to pay for
their imports
Neoliberalism
▸ An approach to economics and social studies
in which control of economic factors is
shifted from the public sector to the private
sector. Drawing upon principles of
neoclassical economics, neoliberalism
suggests that governments reduce deficit
spending, limit subsidies, reform tax law to
broaden the tax base, remove fixed exchange
rates, open up markets to trade by limiting
protectionism, privatize state-run businesses,
allow private property and back deregulation.
Feminism
▸ It is a multi-disciplinary approach to sex and
gender equality understood through social
theories and political activism. Historically,
feminism has evolved from the critical
examination of inequality between the sexes
to a more nuanced focus on the social and
performance constructions of gender and
sexuality.
▸ It is range of movements and
ideologies that share a common goal:
to define, establish, and achieve equal
political, economic, cultural, personal,
and social rights for women which
includes seeking to establish equal
opportunities for women in education
and employment.
▸ Radical feminism is a movement that
believes sexism is so deeply rooted in society
that the only cure is to eliminate the concept
of gender completely.
▸ Radical feminists note that this traditional
dichotomy maintains men as economically in
power over women, and therefore, the
traditional family structure should be
rejected.
▸ Marxist or Socialist feminism is a movement that calls
for an end to capitalism through a socialist reformation
of our economy. Basically, socialist feminism argues that
capitalism strengthens and supports the sexist status quo
because men are the ones who currently have power and
money. Those men are more willing to share their power
and money with other men, which means that women are
continually given fewer opportunities and resources. 
▸ Socialist feminism focuses on economics and politics
▸ Cultural feminism is a movement that
points out how modern society is hurt by
encouraging masculine behavior, but
society would benefit by encouraging
feminine behavior instead.
▸ It is also a feminist theory of difference
that praises the positive aspect of
women.
▸ Liberal feminism believe that women have
the same mental capacity as their male
counterparts and should be given the same
opportunities in political, economic and
social spheres.
▸ Liberal feminism's primary goal
is gender equality in the public sphere --
equal access to education, equal pay, ending
job sex segregation, better working
conditions -- won primarily through legal
changes.
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