CLIMATE IS WHAT YOU EXPECT,

WEATHER IS WHAT YOU GET

Meteorology
Lecture 2

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 Contents
METEOROLOGY
ATMOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
VAPOUR PRESSURE
SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE
DEW POINT TEMPRATURE
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
SATURATION DEFICIT
LAPSE RATE
MEASUREMENTS OF DIFFERENT METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
AIR MASS MOVEMENTS

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METEOROLOGY
Meteorology is the science of atmosphere, which is the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.
OR
Meteorology is the study and forecasting of weather changes resulting from large scale
atmospheric circulation

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 ATMOSPHERE
Term derived from Greek word Atmos (Vapor of breath) & Sphira (Sphere or ball).
Meteorological elements such as temperature, pressure and humidity vary with time and
space both in horizontal and vertical directions
Change in vertical direction is more prominent than horizontal direction
Greater emphasis is put on the study of vertical structure of atmosphere.

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 VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF
ATMOSPHERE
Troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer extending
about (11 Km) 7 miles above sea level
All meteorological phenomena like cloud formation,
occurrence of cyclones and thunderstorms are in
troposphere
All atmospheric water occurs in this layer
This is the reason that it is most important to be
understood in hydrology

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Atmospheric Pressure: the pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere, which at sea level has a mean value of 101,325 pascal
(roughly 14.7 pounds per square inch or psi)
Vapor Pressure: partial pressure caused by the water vapors is called
Vapor pressure.
Saturation Vapor Pressure: the maximum vapor pressure the air can
with-hold at a certain temperature. This is a function of (it depends
upon) temperature.
Dew Point Temperature: the temperature at which the air mass just
becomes saturated if cooled at constant vapour pressure with moisture
neither added nor removed.

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Relative Humidity: the amount of water vapor present in air expressed as a percentage of the
amount needed for saturation at the same temperature
f=e/es

Saturation Deficit: The amount by which the water vapor in the air must be increased to achieve
saturation without changing the environmental temperature and pressure. The saturation
deficit may be expressed in terms of a vapor pressure deficit, an absolute humidity deficit, or a
relative humidity deficit.
∆e= es-e

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METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS
Lapse Rate: rate of decrease of air
temperature with unit increase in the
altitude or elevation from the earth surface.
Average lapse rate is 3.6oF per 1000 ft
increase in elevation or 6.5oC per km
elevation.
Common or environmental lapse rate is much
variable, and it changes with convection,
radiation and condensation.

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METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
AND OBSERVATIONS
Atmospheric pressure
Air Temperature
Relative humidity
Wind speed & Wind direction

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INSTRUMENTS
There are generally two types of instruments used e.g., recording and non recording
instruments. The most desirable requirements of meteorological instruments are:
Reliability: If a no of scientists or methods give same result, it is said to be reliable.
Accuracy: How close is the measurement or reading to the actual value
Simplicity of design
Convenience of operation and maintenance
Strength of construction

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Non-recording instrument of atmospheric pressure is Barometer.
It should be exposed to uniform temperature and good light
It should be installed on solid and vertically mounting box
it should be placed in a room where temperature is almost constant and hung on inside wall
For comparison or drawing isobars barometric readings are reduce to standard gravity of
980.65cm/sec2 and standard temperature of 0oC.

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 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Recording instrument for measurement of
atmospheric pressure is barograph
They display the trend (up, steady, or
down) and the rate of change.
Daily readings should be checked with
barometer
For weekly charts time should be adjusted

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 AIR TEMPERATURE
Measured 4.5’ ground level
Non-recording instruments are maximum and minimum
thermometer
This is a u-tube containing mercury (at bottom bent) in it and a
clear liquid (alcohol) in the minimum side (left) which expands
on increase in temperature,
and pushes the column with maximum reading
Maximum and minimum is read by steel markers, in both limbs
of u tube.
The steel markers move up by mercury but can’t be pulled down
by mercury.
To reset steel marker, magnet is used to bring steel markers to
the mercury level in both limbs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNgGZNQ9SLc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSVkO6FUp7U 13
 Min Max Thermometer
Dry Bulb Wet Bulb Thermometer (out of order)

What is Current Temp?

What is Min and Max Temp?

Any comment on dry~wet bulb thermometer

 AIR TEMPERATURE
Thermograph is a recording type temperature
recording instrument
Movement of recording pen is controlled by the
change in curvature of bi-metallic strip one end of
which is rigidly fixed to the arm
Frequent checking is done by control thermometers

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 RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Psychrometer are used for determination of relative
humidity.
Two thermometers wet bulb and dry bulb are present in it
Dry thermometer is a normal thermometer
But the wet thermometer has a wick to be moistened by
wet cloth
Instrument is swung in the air for sometime so as to
evaporate water from the wick
And then reading from wet bulb is taken and their
difference is determined.
Reading of the dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb
depression is then seen in the table

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RELATIVE HUMIDITY

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RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Hair hygrograph is a recording instrument and directly gives relative humidity in percentage

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WIND SPEED & DIRECTION
Measured with anemometers and
continuous record is obtained by
anemographs.

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 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF AIR
MASSES
General wind system over a
smooth and uniform earth may be
outlined as shown.
These wind systems occur when
the influence of land , sea and
mountain ranges is neglected and
there is no seasonal variation.

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/coriolis-effect/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDEcAxfSYaI
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GENERAL CIRCULATION OF AIR
MASSES
At equator there is low pressure
area, winds are light and variable,
this belt is called doldrums
Winds from both hemisphere enter
into doldrums and cause frequent
showers and rains.
Away from equator are the belts of
high pressure easterlies and
westerlies.
Equitorial side easterlies are called
trade winds and weather is
generally dry

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 MONSOON SYSTEMS
Continent and oceans exert considerable effects on the winds.
Annual variations in the temperature over the oceans are much smaller than on the land
In summer lands warms very much fast as compared to the oceans and an area of low
pressure form on the land so the air moves from sea to the land and is reverse in winters.
Winds which undergo such changes are called monsoon winds.

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MONSOON SYSTEMS
In WINTER over Indo-Pak sub-continent and central part of Asia a “high” is developed.
North easterly winds blow over most of the eastern shores of Asia and India. These are called
north-east Monsoon. These winds are cold and dry. Does not affect Pakistan.
In SUMMER a low is established over north west part of the continent due to heating in the
arid zones.
Over India and Pakistan wind blows form the south-west and is known as South-West
Monsoon. These winds are very damp and originate from Indian ocean.
In Pakistan summer monsoon sets in June but its effect becomes much pronounced in the
central areas by the third week of July. It remains effective by the end of September.

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MONSOON SYSTEMS

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MONSOON SYSTEMS
Prior to monsoon in Pakistan, weather becomes very dry and maximum temperature comes
across 110o F (43o C) by the beginning of July a low is established over Hyderabad, Khairpur,
Multan and Sibbi divisions which is a reason of the onset of Monsoon to some extent.
Monsoon air requires a lifting of 3 to 4 thousand feet to cause thundershowers. And there
exists no barrier to such height.

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WESTERN DISTURBANCES
Western disturbances are important air masses for most of the weather in Pakistan and
northern India. These disturbances approach from the west so are called western disturbances.
These originate from Mediterranean Sea and Arabian Sea and move to easterly or north-easterly
direction.
Following conclusions have been developed by Pakistan Meteorology Department for synoptic
situation causing rains in winters in Pakistan
1. a western disturbance appearing over Turkey reaches in Pakistan in 7-8 days
2. a weak disturbance does not cause a rainfall
3. a well marked disturbance causes widespread rains.

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WESTERN DISTURBANCES

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 THANK YOU
QUESTIONS??

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