INTRODUCTION

Pure metals are only for specific

application . They are very soft and
fixed properties. When these metals
are combined with other elements they
show remarkable improvement. Metals
are classified into two categories
I)Ferrous alloy
II)Non ferrous alloys
 FERROUS ALLOY
• Ferrous alloys contain iron as the major
constituent. Various alloying elements like
sulphur, manganese, phosphorous, etc., are
added small proportions to obtain the
favourable properties.
• Example: Carbon and alloy steels, Stainless
steel, Tool and Die steel, Cast Irons, Cast
Steels
 Non ferrous alloys
• The metals which do not contain iron is called
non ferrous metals. Most non-ferrous metals
are soft. By ‘alloying’ with other materials,
they form new materials and become stronger
for further applications. These are known also
as ‘non-ferrous alloys’.
• Example: copper, aluminum, nickel,
manganese, lead, silver, chromium, etc.,
 Steels (<2.1%C)
Important characteristics:
• It is strong and readily formed into desired
shape
• Excellent ductility permitting small yielding to
sudden load
• It is lustrous having excellent surface finish
• Good conductor of electric current
• High density and high melting point
 Classification of steels
Steels

Plain Carbon steels Alloy steels

•Mild steel or Low carbon
steel(<0.25%) Low Alloy steels High Alloy steels( >
•Medium carbon steel (0.25 (3 – 4%) 5%)
– 0.6%) •High strength low alloy steel
•High carbon steel(> 0.6%) •Maraging steel
•Ultra high carbon steel •AISI steel

Stainless steels Tool & Die steels

•Austenitic Stainless steels
•Ferrite Stainless steels
•Martensitic Stainless steels
•Precipitation hardened steels
•Cold work tool steels
•Mold tool steels
•Shock resisting tool steels
•High speed tool steels
•Special purpose tool steels
Low carbon steels(Mild steel) (<0.25%C)
Characteristics:
• Neither brittle nor ductile
• Malleable when heated
• Posses low tensile strength
• Surface hardness can be improved by carburizing
treatment
• Cheap in cost
Applications:
Valves, small gears, screws, nails, wire, small
forgings, automotive body components.
 Low carbon steel (<0.25%C)
Microstructure
 Medium carbon steel(0.25 – 0.6% C)
Characteristics:
• Contains approximately
0.25% to 0.59%C
• Stronger but less tougher
than low carbon steel
• Good wear resistance
• Properties are enhanced by heat treatments
Applications:
Large size of forging and automotive parts, bolts, rods, crank
shaft, axle, and other components that required higher hardness
and wear resistance are made from medium carbon steels.
 Medium carbon steel
• microstructure
 High carbon steel(> 0.6% C)
Characteristics:
• Contains approximately 0.6 to 1%C
• Extremely strong, but more brittle
• Better response to heat treatment
longer service life than medium carbon steels
• Typically higher wear resistance
Applications:
• Springs, high strength wires, hacksaw blades, cold
chisels, hammers, shear blades, punches, taps,
drills, clutch disc
 High carbon steel
• microstructure
 Ultra high carbon steel
• Steels contain approximately
1-2% carbon
• More brittle and can be
tempered to produce excellent
toughness
• Used for non industrial applications. Like
farming and kitchen tools.
 Alloy steels
High Strength Low Alloy steel(HSLA)
• Steel has 0.2%C, 1.5%Mn,
0.003 to 0.1%Nb, 0.003 to 0.1% V
• Mainly developed for structural
steels. So that the welding can be
carried without riveting
• High strength to weight ratio
• Oil & gas pipe line, heavy duty off road vehicle,
bridges, dams, structural beams & columns, bridges,
towers, columns in high-rise buildings, pressure
vessels, automobiles, trains, transmission towers.
 High Strength Low Alloy steel(HSLA)
• HSLA steels are nothing but high-strength low-alloy
steels.
• HSLA steels, also known as micro-alloyed steels, are
low carbon steels containing small amounts of
alloying elements .
• The primary purpose of HSLA steels is weight
reduction through increased strength .
• These HSLA steels are widely used as structural or
constructional alloy steels.
• Weight savings upto 20 to 30% can be achieved
without compromising its strength.
 MARAGING STEELS
• The steel contains 18%Ni,
7-8%Co, 5%Mo, 0.5%Ti, 0.3%C
• Usually carbon content is kept
<0.05%C otherwise the nickel
could lead to formation of graphite which decrease
strength.
• Maraging steels are low-carbon, highly alloyed steels.
• Since nickel is a predominant constituent of maraging
steels, therefore maraging steels are sometimes termed
as special type high-nickel steel.
• These are very high-strength materials that can be
hardened to obtain tensile strengths of upto 1900 MPa.
 MARAGING STEELS
• The high alloy steel is cooled from austenitic
state to martensite followed by precipitation
hardening (mar-aging).
• Used where high strength with good fracture
toughness is required.
• Flexible drive shafts for helicopters, barrels for
rapid-firing guns, die-castingdies, and
extrusion rams, space-vehicle cases, punches,
dies for cold forging, extrusion dies for
aluminum cans etc.
 MANGANESE STEEL
• Mangalloy is a unique non-magnetic 
steel with extreme anti-wear properties
• Containing 0.8 to 1.25% carbon,
with 11 to 15% manganese
• high impact strength and resistance to
abrasion has fair yield strength but very
high tensile strength
• mangalloy's uses are often limited by its difficulty in machining sometimes
described as having "zero machinability,
• It cannot be softened by annealing and hardens,  usually requiring special
tooling to machine
•  used in the mining industry, cement mixers, rock crushers, railway switches
and crossings, crawler treads for tractors
 STAINLESS STEELS
• It contain 11.5-25% chromium content.
• A thin layer of naturally occurring chromium-rich
oxide film(chromium oxide) formed on the steel
surface when exposed to oxygen.
• This invisible film is extremely protective in a
wide range of corrosive media.
• The film is damaged either by machining or
abrasion, will be self-repaired.
 STAINLESS STEELS - Types
• Based of the predominant phase constituent of
the microstructure as :
1. Austenitic stainless steels,
2. Ferritic stainless steels, and
3. Martensitic stainless steels.
Austenite stabilizers(ᵦ Stabilizers): Ni, Mn, Co, Cu
Ferrite stabilizers(α Stabilizers):Cr, W, Mo, V, Si
STAINLESS STEELS - Types
 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
• This steel contains
C - 0.03 to 0.15%; Si - 1 to 2%; Ni - 3.5 to 22%;
Mn - 2 to 10%; Cr - 16 to 26%; P and S - Normal
Mo and Ti in some cases
• It is a non magnetic, non heat treatable,
usually annealed and cold worked.
• The most commonly used around 70% stainless steel product are made
this type when a layman speaks of stainless steel,it is usually implies an
austenitic stainless steel.
• Properties:
(i) Highest corrosion resistance.
(ii) Good strength and scale resistance at high temperature.
(iii) Non-magnetic.
(iv) Good ductility at cryogenic temperature i.e., below O°C.
 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
• The type of corrosion failure that can occur, due to the presence
of carbide particles, is known as weld decay. In order to prevent
the weld decay, the stabilizer such as titanium or niobium is
added in small amounts with the austenitic stainless steels.
• Improved strength, hardness and wear resistance can be achieved
by introducing a fine dispersion of titanium nitride particles
throughout the material (using the powder metallurgy methods).
• Computer floppy disk shutter, computer keyboard spring, kitchen
sink, food processing equipment, Architectural application, aircraft
industry (engine parts), chemical processing (heat exchanger),
food processing (kettles, tanks),household (cooking utensils), dairy
industry (milk cans),transportation industry (trailers and railway
cars), etc.
 FERRITE STAINLESS STEELS
• This steel contains
C - 0.08 to 0.10%; Si - 1%;
Mn - 1 to·1.5%; Cr - 12 to 25%
Properties:
(i) They are magnetic.
(ii) They have good ductility.
(iii) They have great strength, toughness, and
good resistance to corrosion.
(iv) These steels can be welded, forged, rolled, and machined .
• Less durable than austenitic grade, non heat treatable, but may be
strengthened by work hardening.
• Ferrite steels are used in computer floppy disk hubs, automotive
exhaust, hat water tank, lining for petroleum industry, heating
elements for furnaces, interior decorative work, screws and fittings,
oilburner parts, etc.
 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS
• It contains
C - 0.1 to 1.5%; Si - 1%; Mn - 1%
Cr - 12 to 25% ; 0.2-1% Mo; 0-2%Ni; 0.1-1%C.
• Less corrosion resistance, extremely strong and tough
• Highly machinable and can be hardened by heat treatment
• The presence of carbon restores the α to γ transition. These
compositions can be heated to the austenitic range of
temperatures and will transform to martensite upon cooling
at suitable rates .
Properties:
(i) Good hardness, ductility, and thermal conductivity.
(ii) Good toughness and corrosion resistance .
 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

Applications:
The typical applications of martensitic stainless steels include
pumps and valve parts, rules and tapes, turbine
buckets, surgical instruments, etc.
 Precipitation hardening steels

• The most common steel contain 17%Cr, 4%Ni

• The steel is hardended after fabrication in a
single low temperature aging process
• Mainly used in specific application like shaft
for pump and valves, etc.,
 Duplex stainless steels

• It is a mixture of austenite and ferrite microstructure

(50-50 to 40-60)
• They contain 19-28%Cr, 5%Mo, with low amount of
Ni
• It have improved strength and corrosion resistance
• Used in marine applications, desalination plant, heat
exchangers, petrochemical plant
 Tool steels
• A variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-
suited to be made into tools.
• Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance
to abrasion and deformation, and their ability to hold a cutting
edge at elevated temperatures.
• As a result, tool steels are suited for use in the shaping of other
materials.
• With a carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are
manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce
the required quality.
• The presence of carbides in their matrix plays the dominant role
in the qualities of tool steel.
• The four major alloying elements that form carbides in tool steel
are:
 tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum.
 Tool steels
• Proper heat treatment of these steels is important for adequate
performance.
• Tool steels are metals designed to provide wear resistance and toughness
combined with high strength.
• They are basically high-carbon alloys, where the chemistry provides the
balance of toughness and wear desired.
Properties of Tool Steels
(i) Good toughness.
(ii) Good wear resistance.
(iii) Very good machinability.
(iv) Slight change of form during hardening.
(v) Little risk of cracking during hardening.
(vi) Resistance to softening on heating.
(vii) Resistance to decarburisation.
(viii) A definite hardening temperature.
(ix) A definite cooling rate during hardening.
 Cold work tool steel

• These are steels used to cut or form materials

that are at low temperatures
• The cold-work tool steels include the O series
(oil-hardening), the A series (air-hardening),
and the D series (high carbon-chromium).
Grade Composition Notes

0.90% C, 1.0–1.4%  It is a cold work steel used for gauges, cutting tools,
Mn, 0.50% Cr, woodworking tools and knives. It can be hardened to 66
O1 0.50% W, 0.30% Si, HRC, typically used at Rc61-63. Vanadium is optional.
0.20% V Also sold as Arne,[8] SKS3, 1.2510 and 100MnCrW4.

0.90% C, 1.5–2.0%  It is a cold work steel used for gauges, cutting tools,
woodworking tools and knives. It can be hardened to 66
O2 Mn, 0.30% Cr, HRC, typically used at Rc61-63. Also sold as 1.2842 and
0.30% Si, 0.15% V
90MnCrV8.[9]

It is a cold work oil-hardening, graphitic tool steel with

outstanding resistance to metal-to-metal sliding wear
1.45% C, 1.0% Mn, and galling. APPLICATIONS: Thread gauges, master
O6 1.0% Si, 0.3% Mo gages, cams, bushings, sleeves, meat granulator plates,
arbors, forming rolls, shear blades, punches, dies, bar
feed guides [10]
 Grade Composition Notes

1.0% C, 1.0% Mn, A common general purpose tool steel; it is the most

commonly used variety of air-hardening steel. It is
5.0% Cr, 0.3% Ni,
A2[12] 1.0% Mo, 0.15– commonly used for blanking and forming punches,
trimming dies, thread rolling dies, and injection
0.50% V molding dies.[11]
1.25% C, 0.5% Mn,
A3 [13]
5.0% Cr, 0.3% Ni, 0.9–
1.4% Mo, 0.8–1.4% V
1.0% C, 2.0% Mn,
A4[14] 1.0% Cr, 0.3% Ni, 0.9–
1.4% Mo
This type of tool steel air-hardens at a relatively low
temperature (approximately the same temperature
0.7% C, 1.8–2.5% Mn,
as oil-hardening types) and is dimensionally stable.
A6[15] 0.9–1.2% Cr, 0.3% Ni, Therefore, it is commonly used for dies, forming
0.9–1.4% Mo
tools, and gauges that do not require extreme wear
resistance but do need high stability.[11]
 Grade Composition Notes

D2 is very wear resistant but not as tough as lower

1.5% C, 11.0–13.0% 
Cr; additionally alloyed steels. The mechanical properties of D2 are
very sensitive to heat treatment. It is widely used
D2 0.45% Mn, 0.030% P,
0.030% S, 1.0% V, for the production of shear blades, planer blades
and industrial cutting tools; sometimes used for
0.9% Mo, 0.30% Si
knife blades
COMPOSITION
Mold tool steels
 Designation of some tool steels
1. A widely used high-speed tool steel is 18-4-1 high speed steel.
This steel contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and 1% vanadium. It
is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels.

2. Since molybdenum is a cheaper alloying element than tungsten and

is about twice as effective as tungsten, the T steels have been almost
entirely replaced by M steels.

3. The cobalt high speed steel is also known as ultra or super high
speed steel.
This steel contains 20% tungsten, 12% cobalt, 4%chromium, and 2%
vanadium.
 Special purpose tool steel
Characteristics
1.Excellent Toughness
2.Medium Wear Resistance
3.High Resistance to Quench Cracking
Application
For Tools with Super Toughness: Hobbing, Punches, Collets, Forming Rolls
For Tools with Wear Resistance: Shear Blades, Swaging, Swaging Dies,
Slitting Cutters
Machine Parts: Clutch Parts, Spindles, Pawls, Knuckle Pins
 Effects of Elements on Steels
• Boron: Improves hardenability without the loss of (or even
with some improvement in) machinability and formability.
• Calcium: Deoxidizes steels, improves toughness, and may
improve formability and machinability.
• Carbon: improves hardenability, strength, hardness, and
wear resistance; it reduces ductility, weldability, and
toughness.
• Cerium: controls the shape of inclusions and improves
toughness in high-strength low alloy steels; it deoxidizes
steels.
• Chromium: improves toughness, hardenability wear and
corrosion resistance, and high-temperature strength; it
increases the depth of the hardness penetration resulting
from heat treatment by promoting carburization.
• Cobalt: improves strength and hardness at elevated
temperatures.
 Effects of Elements on Steels
• Copper: improves resistance to atmospheric corrosion and,
to a lesser extent, increases strength with little loss in
ductility; it adversely affects the hot-working characteristics
and surface quality.
• Lead: improves machinability; it causes liquid-metal
embrittlement.
• Magnesium: has the same effects as cerium.
• Manganese: improves hardenability, strength, abrasion
resistance, and machinability; it deoxidizes the molten
steel, reduce shot shortness, and decreases weldability.
• Molybdenum: improves hardenability, wear resistance,
toughness, elevated-temperature strength, creep
resistance, and hardness; it minimizes temper
embrittlement.
 Effects of Elements on Steels
• Nickel: improves strength, toughness, and corrosion
resistance; it improves hardenability.
• Niobium (columbium): imparts fineness of grain size and
improves strength and impact toughness; it lowers
transition temperature and may decrease hardenability.
• Phosphorus: improves strength, hardenability, corrosion
resistance, and machinability; it severely reduces ductility
and toughness.
• Selenium: improves machinability.
• Silicon: improves strength, hardness, corrosion resistance,
and electrical conductivity; it decreases magnetic-
hysteresis loss, machinability, and cold formability.
• Sulphur: Improves machinability when combined with
manganese; it lowers impact strength and ductility and
impairs surface quality and weldability. But decreases
the high temperature strength.
• Tantalum: has effects similar to those of niobium.
• Tellurium: improves machinability, formability, and
toughness.
• Titanium: improves hardenability; it deoxidizes steels.
• Tungsten: has the same effects as cobalt.
• Vanadium: improves strength, toughness, abrasion
resistance, and hardness at elevated temperatures; it
inhibits grain growth during heat treatment.
• Zirconium: has the same effects as cerium effects as
cerium
 Steel designation
• The society of automotive engineering (SAE)
established standards for specific steels
• Example
• SAE 1 0 40
Digit 1 indicate
Digit 0 indicate no Carbon content is 0.4%
caron steel
modification in alloy
 Steel designation
• SAE 2 5 15

Digit 2 indicate
Major alloying Carbon content
Nickel steel
element is 5% Ni is 0.15%

• SAE 5 1 20

Digit 5 indicate
Chromium steel Major alloying Carbon content is
element is 1%Cr 0.2%
 SAE Type
designation
1xxx Carbon steels
2xxx Nickel steels
3xxx Nickel-chromium steels
4xxx Molybdenum steels
5xxx Chromium steels
6xxx Chromium-vanadium steels
7xxx Tungsten steels
8xxx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
9xxx Silicon-manganese steels
 Cast iron
• The cast iron solidifies as heterogeneous alloys
• Cast iron contain more than 2% carbon content
with 1-4% silicon
• Under cooling silicon promote the formation of
graphite
• It may often to be used in place of steel for cost
saving
• They cannot be rolled or forged due to high
brittleness but excellent castability
 Gray cast iron (Flake Graphite)
• It contains
Carbon - 2.5 to 4%; Silicon - 1 to 3%;
Manganese - 0.4 to 1;Phosphorus - .0.15 to 1%
Sulphur - 0.02 to 0.15% ; Remaining is iron
• The brittle graphic provides excellent
machinability and retain lubricants.
• Higher damping capacity and good fatigue strength
• It expand during solidification resulting in shrinkage free
casting
• Less toughness and ductility
• Has outstanding sound and vibration damping capacity.
• Used to produce Engine blocks, gears flywheel, brake
disc and drum, machine base
 White cast iron
• Contains
Carbon 1.8 to 3%;Manganese0.25 to 0.8%;
Silicon 0.5 to 1.9% ;Phosphorus 0.05 to 0.2%
Sulphur - 0.10 to 0.30%; Remaining is iron.

• White cast iron displays white fractured

surfaces due to the presence of an iron
carbide precipitate called cementite
• White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components
• with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low
cost
•  It is used for shot blasting nozzles, rolling mill rolls, crushers,
pulverizers and ball mill liners
 Malleable cast iron
• Contains
Carbon 2.0 to 3.0%; Silicon 0.6 to 1.3%;
Manganese 0.2 to 0.6%;
Phosphorus 0.15%;
Silicon - 0.10% Remaining is iron

• Produced by annealing white cast iron. At 927oC cementite transformed to

ferrite and free carbon.
• Under slow cooling free carbon form irregular nodules shape is called
malleableizing
• It is malleable, castability, moderate strength, toughness and corrosion
resistance for certain application.
• Used for connecting rod, universal joint yokes, transmission gear, differential
case, compressor crank shaft & hub, flanges, pipe fitting, marine and heavy
duty application
 Spheroidal cast iron
• Nodular or ductile cast iron
contain 3.2-4.2%C, 1.1-3.5%Si,
0.08%P, 0.2%S, 0.-0.8%Mn
• Produce by add Mn to molten
iron forms precipitation of carbon
sphere
• Better strength, ductility, stiffness and shock resistance
compared with gray cast iron
• Low shrinkage during casting, good fluidity, , castability,
machinability, and wear resistance
• Used in heavy duty gear, automobile door hinges
pump casing and valves
 ALLOY CAST IRON
• The alloy cast irons, like alloy steels, can be produced by
adding alloying elements like Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, Si, and Mn.
• In general, the effects of alloying elements on the
properties of cast iron are similar to the effects of same
elements on the properties of steel
• Alloy cast irons have been produced to give high
strength
• materials, hard and abrasion-resistant materials,
corrosion resistant irons, and irons for high
temperature service.
Effects of Alloying Elements in Cast Iron
Properties and Applications