MOTIVATION

Drives and Needs

Self-concept, social norms, and past
experience

Needs Decisions
Drive
(primary needs) and Behavior

• The three key elements of motivation include

– Intensity – the amount of effort put forth to meet the goal
– Direction – efforts are channeled toward organizational goals
– Persistence – how long the effort is maintained
 Maslow’s Hierarchy McGregor’s Theory
Early of Needs Theory X and Theory Y
Theories of
Motivation Herzberg’s Two-
McClelland’s
Theory of Needs
Factor (Motivation-
(Three Needs
Hygiene) Theory
Theory)
 Need Theories: A Comparison

Growth needs

5. Self-actualization needs
• Growth needs
4. Esteem needs
Deficiency Needs

3. Social needs • Relatedness needs

2. Safety needs
• Existence needs

1. Physiological needs

Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Alderfer’s ERG theory

4
 Douglas McGregor’s X & Y

• Inherent dislike for work and • View work as being as natural

will attempt to avoid it as rest or play

• Must be coerced, controlled or • Will exercise self-direction and

threatened with punishment self-control if committed to
objectives
 Two Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors Motivation Factors

• Supervisors • Achievement
• Working Conditions • Recognition
• Interpersonal Relations • The Work Itself
• Pay & Security • Responsibility
• Company Policies & • Advancement & Growth
Administration

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
 Need for Achievement (nAch)

• The drive to excel

Need for Power (nPow)

McClelland's Theory • The need to make others behave in a

of Needs way they would not have behaved
otherwise

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

• The desire for friendly and close

interpersonal relationships
McClelland's High • High achievers prefer jobs with:
Achievers – Personal responsibility
– Feedback
– Intermediate degree of risk
(50/50)

• High achievers are not necessarily

good managers

• High nPow and low nAff is related

to managerial success
 Four-Drive Theory

• Drive to take/keep objects and

Drive to Acquire experiences
• Basis of hierarchy and status

• Drive to form relationships and

Drive to Bond social commitments
• Basis of social identity

• Drive to satisfy curiosity and

Drive to Learn resolve conflicting information

• Need to protect ourselves

Drive to Defend • Reactive (not proactive) drive
• Basis of fight or flight
Contemporary • Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Theories of • Goal-Setting Theory
Motivation • Self-Efficacy Theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory
Cognitive Evaluation • Proposes that the introduction of
Theory extrinsic rewards for work (pay)
that was previously intrinsically
rewarding tends to decrease
overall motivation

• Verbal rewards increase intrinsic

motivation, while tangible rewards
undermine it
 • Goals increase performance when the
goals are:
 Specific
Goal-Setting Theory
 Difficult, but accepted by
employees
 Accompanied by feedback
(especially self-generated
feedback)
• Contingencies in goal-setting theory:
 Goal Commitment – public goals
better!
 Task Characteristics – simple &
familiar better!
 National Culture – Suits best!
 Equity Theory

• Employees weigh what they put into a job situation (input)

against what they get from it (outcome).
• They compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-
outcome ratio of relevant others.

My Output Your Output

My Input Your Input
 Correcting Inequity Feelings
Actions to correct inequity
Reduce inputs
Increase outcomes
Increase other’s inputs
Reduce other’s outputs
Change our perceptions
Change comparison
other
Leave the field
Example
Less organizational citizenship
Ask for pay increase
Ask coworker to work harder
Ask boss to stop giving other
preferred treatment
Start thinking that other’s perks
aren’t really so valuable
Compare self to someone
closer to your situation
Quit job
 Expectancy Theory

Three key relationships:

1. Effort-Performance: perceived probability that exerting
effort leads to successful performance
2. Performance-Reward: the belief that successful
performance leads to desired outcome
3. Rewards-Personal Goals: the attractiveness of
organizational outcome (reward) to the individual
 Application of • Clarify expectancies between effort and
Expectancy Theory performance and follow through with
rewards.
– Pay for performance
– Stock option plans and other
incentive programs
• Provide valued rewards
– Cafeteria-style benefits
Porter Lawler Model
Other motivating The Job Characteristics Model - jobs are
techniques described in terms of five core dimensions:

 Skill variety
 Task identity
 Task significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback
The Job Characteristics Model
 JCM: Designing • JCM-designed jobs give internal rewards
Motivational Jobs
• Individual’s growth needs are moderating
factors
• Motivating jobs must be:
 Autonomous
 Provide feedback, and
 Have at least one of the three
meaningfulness factors
How Can Jobs be Job Rotation
Redesigned? The periodic shifting of an employee
from one task to another
Job Enlargement
Increasing the number and variety of
tasks
Job Enrichment
Increasing the degree to which the
worker controls the planning, execution
and evaluation of the work
 Flextime

• Some discretion over when

worker starts and leaves

Job Sharing
Alternate Work
Arrangements • Two or more individuals split a
traditional job

Telecommuting

• Work remotely at least two

days per week
Employee Involvement A participative process that uses the input of
employees to increase their commitment to
the organization’s success

Two types:
Participative Management
Representative Participation
Participative Management • Subordinates share a significant degree of
decision-making power with superiors
Required conditions:
• Issues must be relevant
• Employees must be competent and
knowledgeable
• All parties must act in good faith
• Only a modest influence on productivity,
motivation, and job satisfaction
Representative • Workers are represented by a small group
Participation of employees who participate in decisions
affecting personnel
 Works Councils
 Board membership
 Desires to redistribute power within
an organization
 Does not appear to be very
motivational
How to Pay: Variable-Pay Bases a portion of the pay on a given
Programs measure of performance
 Piece-Rate Pay – workers are paid a
fixed sum for each unit of production
completed
 Merit-Based Pay – pay is based on
individual performance appraisal
ratings
 Bonuses – rewards employees for
recent performance
 Skill-Based Pay – pay is based on skills
acquired instead of job title or rank –
doesn’t address the level of
performance
 More Variable Pay Programs

• Profit-Sharing Plans – organization-wide programs that distribute

compensation based on an established formula designed around
profitability
• Gainsharing – compensation based on sharing of gains from improved
productivity
• Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) – plans in which employees
acquire stock, often at below-market prices

While it appears that pay does increase

productivity, it seems that not everyone responds
positively to variable-pay plans.
What Benefit to Offer: Each employee creates a benefit package
Flexible Benefits tailored to their own needs and situation

 Modular plans – predesigned

packages to meet the needs of a
specific group
 Core-plus plans – core of essential
benefits and menu of options to
choose from
 Flexible spending plans – full choice
from menu of options
 Employee Recognition Programs
• Intrinsic rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation
– Personal attention given to employee
– Approval and appreciation for a job
well done
– Growing in popularity and usage
• Benefits of Programs
– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
– Inexpensive to implement
– Encourages repetition of desired behaviors
• Drawbacks of Programs
– Susceptible to manipulation by management
 Motivating Jobs Through Job Redesign

• Scientifically managed jobs: boring, repetitive, few skills

utilized
• Job Enlargement: add more tasks of similar skill level to
the job Horizontal Loading
• Job Enrichment: add more responsibility and autonomy to
the job Vertical Loading
 Basic Principles
• Motivating employees starts with motivating yourself

• Key to supporting the motivation of your employees is

understanding what motivates each of them

• Recognize that supporting employee motivation is a process, not a

task- Organizations change all the time

• Reward it when you see it

• Reward it soon after you see it