Cellular

Reproduction
 The Big
Idea
Cells go through a life cycle that
includes interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis.
 Cellular Growth

Cells grow until they reach

their size limit, then they
either stop growing or
divide.
 What Limits Cell Size?
• As the cell grows, its volume increases much more rapidly than the
surface area.
• The cell might have difficulty supplying nutrients and expelling
enough waste products.
 What Limits Cell Size?
• Transport of Substances
• Substances move by diffusion or by motor proteins.
• Diffusion over large distances is slow and inefficient.
• Small cells maintain more efficient transport systems.
• Cell Communication
• The need for signaling proteins to move throughout the
cell also limits cell size.
• Cell size affects the ability of the cell to communicate
instructions for cellular functions.
 Why do cells divide?
1: DNA Overload
• If cells grow without limit, an “information crisis” would
develop
• DNA cannot serve the needs of the increasing size of cell

2: Exchange of materials
• Food and oxygen have to cross membrane very quickly
• Waste must get out
• If cell is too large, this occurs too slowly and cell will die
 CELL REPRODUCTION
• Three types of cell division, or cell reproduction
• Cell Division: process by which a cell divides to form two new cells (daughter
cells)
• Prokaryotes (bacteria)
• Binary fission divides forming two new identical cells
• Eukaryotes
• Mitosis
• Cell or organism growth
• Replacement or repair of damaged cells
• Meiosis
•
 PROKARYOTIC CELL
DIVISION
• Binary fission
• 3 main steps:
1: DNA Replication—DNA is copied, resulting in 2
identical chromosomes
2: Chromosome Segregation—2 chromosomes separate,
move towards ends (poles) of cell
3: Cytokinesis—cytoplasm divides,
forming 2 cells
• Each new daughter cell is
 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION

• DNA found on chromosomes located in nucleus of cell

• Cell cycle continuous process
• Cells grow
• DNA replicated
• Organelles duplicated
• Divide to form daughter cells
 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION

•2 Main steps:
1: Mitosis (4 steps—Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
Nucleus divides
2: Cytokinesis—Cytoplasm
divide, forming 2 cells

Each new daughter cell is genetically identical to parent cell

 The Cell Cycle

• Cell division prevents the cell from becoming

too large.
• It also is the way the cell reproduces so that
you grow and heal certain injuries.
• Cells reproduce by a cycle of growing and
dividing called the cell cycle.
 The Cell Cycle
• Interphase is the stage during which the cell
grows, carries out cellular functions, and
replicates.
• Mitosis is the stage of the cell cycle during
which the cell’s nucleus and nuclear material
divide.
• Cytokinesis is the method by which a cell’s
cytoplasm divides, creating a new cell.
 THE CELL CYCLE

G1 phase

M phase
S phase

G2 phase
 Interphase
• The first stage of interphase, G1
• The cell is growing, carrying out normal cell
functions, and preparing to replicate DNA.
 Interphase
• The second stage of Interphase, S
• The cell copies its DNA in preparation for cell
division.
 Interphase
• The third stage of Interphase, G2
• The cell prepares for the division of its nucleus.
What does a cell look like in
Interphase?
Chromatin
Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Eukaryotic cells reproduce by mitosis,

the process of
nuclear division, and cytokinesis, the
process of cytoplasm divisions.
 Mitosis

• Mitosis is the division of the

nucleus during cell division.
• Mitosis is a continuous process
that is divided into four phases:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase
 Prophase

1. DNA begins to shorten and

tightly coil into the rod-shaped
chromosomes.

2. The nucleolus and nuclear

membrane begin to disappear.
3. Centrosomes and centrioles
begin to appear and start to
move to the opposite ends of
the cell.
 Prophase

4. As the centrosomes separate, spindle fibers begin to form and

create a structure known as the mitotic spindle.

5. The mitotic spindle helps to divide the chromatids into equal

halves.

6. There are two types of fibers within the mitotic spindle:

kinetochore and polar fibers.
 Metaphase

1. This is the easiest phase to

see the chromosomes.

2. Sister chromatids are

pulled along the spindle
apparatus toward the
center of the cell.
3. They line up in the middle
of the cell.
 Anaphase

1. The microtubules of the

spindle apparatus begin
to shorten.

2. The sister chromatids

separate.

3. The chromosomes move

toward the poles of the
cell.
 Telophase

1. The chromosomes arrive at

the poles and begin to
relax.

2. Two new nuclear

membranes begin to form
and the nucleoli reappear.
3. The spindle apparatus
disassembles.
 Cytokinesis
1. In animal cells,
microfilaments constrict,
or pinch, the cytoplasm.
The part that pinches in
and eventually separates
is called the cleavage
furrow.
2. In plant cells, a new
structure, called a cell
plate, forms.
 Cytokinesis

• Cytoplasm divides

**Different between plant and animal cells

In animal cells, cell membrane pinches in
midway between two poles creating a
cleavage furrow
Cytokinesis (Last Part of M
Phase)
 Cytokinesis
• In plant cells, vesicles formed by golgi
fuse together at mid-line forming a cell
plate

**Each cell formed by mitosis receives an

exact copy of original cell’s
chromosomes and approximately half
of the parent cell’s cytoplasm and
organelles.
 Plant Cell Cytokinesis
• Plants have no centrioles
• Plants have a cell wall form and NOT a
cleavage furrow
Results of M-Phase
• 2 daughter cells
• Same size as original cell
• Genetically and physically like original
cell
• Same chromosome number as original
cell
• Mitosis takes about 1-2 hrs
• DNA containing cell’s
genetic code
• Each chromosome has a
matching pair
-- Homologous Pair
• During interphase, each
chromosome copies itself
 Chromosomes
• rod-like structures made of DNA and protein
2 Kinds of proteins in chromosomes
A. histones- proteins that DNA wraps around,
helps hold shape of chromosome and allows
DNA to pack tightly
B. nonhistones- Do not aid in packing of
DNA, instead they control specific regions
of the DNA
 Chromosomes

• Chromosomes consist of two identical halves

(each half is called a chromatid)
• Chromatids form when DNA makes a copy of
itself prior to cell division
• When the cell divides each new cell receives
one chromatid
 Chromosomes
• Chromatids are held together by a
centromere
 Chromosomes

• Prokaryote DNA consists of a single

chromosome that is attached to inside
of cell membrane
Chromosome Number
• Each species has a characteristic number
of chromosomes in each cell
Ex: Humans 46
Dogs 78
Adder’s tongue fern 1,262

Chromosome # has nothing to do with

complexity of organism
Types of Chromosomes
1. Sex chromosomes- determine sex of
organism (could carry other genes as
well)

-Human sex chromosomes are either X or Y

Females XX Males XY
Types of Chromosomes

2. Autosomes- all other chromosomes in an

organism

-Of the 46 human chromosomes, 2 are sex

chromosomes, the other 44 are autosomes
Types of Chromosomes
• Every cell of an organism produced by sexual
reproduction has 2 copies of each autosome
(one from each parent)

• The two copies of each chromosome are called

homologous chromosomes- same shape and
size and carry genes for same trait
 Karyotypes

• Picture of an individual’s chromosomes

(cells are treated with chemicals to start
mitosis, photos are taken during
metaphase, and pictures are cut out and
matched up)
Karyotype of human male cell
after S-phase of cell
division
Diploid vs. Haploid
Cells
• Diploid cells- cells with two sets of
chromosomes (2n)
• Diploid cells have both chromosomes for each
pair as well as the sex chromosomes
• Diploid cells in humans have 23 pairs, or 46
chromosomes 2n = 46
 Diploid vs. Haploid
Cells
• Human gametes, or sex cells, are haploid
sperm- male gamete
egg- female gamete
• Haploid cells contain only one set of
chromosomes, n
• Have half the # of chromosomes as diploid cells
and only have one sex chromosome
 Diploid vs. Haploid
Cells
• When sperm and egg unite during fertilization,
first cell of new organism will be diploid (2n)

• If gametes were not haploid, the new cell would

be 4n and not functional
• Process to make more body
cells = Mitosis
• Process to make Gametes =
Meiosis
What do we start with to make
gametes?

Oogonium cell in Ovary in Interphase

Spermatogonium cell in Testicle in

Interphase
 Meiosis

Chiasma
Synapsis
Prophase I
• Same like Mitosis Prophase except
here you have “Synapsis” and
“Crossing-Over” of homologous
pairs of chromosomes
 Meiosis
Metaphase I
• Like Mitosis Metaphase but here it’s
Homologous Pairs lining up at equator and
not individual sister chromatids.
 Meiosis
• Anaphase I
• Homologous Pairs separate and NOT sister
chromatids
 Meiosis
• Telophase I
• 2 daughter cells formed after
Cytokinesis
• Each cell is Haploid
• Each human daughter cell at
this point would have 46
chromosomes
 Meiosis

•No Interphase
•Each cell begins to
divide again
 Meiosis
• Prophase II
• Like Prophase of Mitosis
 Meiosis
• Metaphase II
• Like Metaphase of Mitosis
• Line up sister chromatids
 Meiosis
• Anaphase II
• Like anaphase of Mitosis
• Separate sisters
 Meiosis
• Telophase II
• At the end of Cytokinesis there will be 4
Haploid daughter cells
• If human, they will each have 23
chromosomes
 Meiosis Timing
• Human Males:
• A month for full meiotic cycle
• Human Females:
• Prophase 1 starts when she is a fetus
in the womb
• Completion of meiosis during
puberty
 Meiosis and Genetic
Diversity
• We have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• In the making of sperm or egg we have:
• 223 (8,388,608) different genetic
versions of gametes
• Add to that variability from crossing
over…
• Add to that variability from
mutations…
 Cell Cycle Regulation

The normal cell cycle is regulated by

cyclin proteins.
 Control of the Cell
Cycle
• Regulatory proteins called cyclins control the cell
cycle at checkpoints:
• G1 Checkpoint—decides whether or not cell will
divide
• S Checkpoint—determines if DNA has been
properly replicated
• Mitotic Spindle Checkpoint—ensures chromosomes
are aligned at mitotic plate
 Control of Cell Cycle:
Cyclins and Growth Factors

Nucleus

Cytoplasm
 Cyclins
• Made in timed fashion and destroyed in
timed fashion
• They bind Cyclin-dependent Kinases (CdKs)
• Binding activates the CDK
• Kinase phosphorylates and thereby
activates a protein important in the cell
cycle
• Cyclin A/CDK2 terminates the S phase by
phosphorylating CDC6 and E2F1; it drives the cell-
cycle transition from S phase to G2 phase, and
subsequently activates CDK1 by cyclin A, leading
to cells entering the M phase. Upon mitosis, the
CDK1 activity is maintained by the complex cyclin
B/CDK1.
 Growth Factors
• Chemicals that bind to cells and tell cell to
activate a CdK related to cell cycle
1)Cut and bleeding
2) Platelets release
Platelet-derived GF
3) This GF stimulates
skin cells to divide
Cell Cycle
Checkpoints
 Control of Cell
Division

• Cell Anchorage
• Cyclins
• Density Dependent Inhibition
• Growth Factors
 Loss of Control
• Cancer
• No Density Dependent Inhibition
• Don’t respond to normal “off” signals
• Uncontrolled replication of cells
• 12 million new cancer victims in 2008 (ACS)
“Cancer” (Latin)
Hippocrates over 2,300 years
ago witnessed long distended
vein growth from breast tumors
 Regulation gone:
Regulator Gene Mutations

• Oncogenes (“Gas”)
• Code for proteins that enhance cell
division
• Tumor Suppressor Genes (“Brakes”)
• Code for proteins that inhibit cell
division
Backup regulation to deal
with mutations
• DNA Self-Repair (DNA Polymerase)
• Apoptosis (Cell Suicide)
• Cells wired not to be able to divide
endlessly

Cancer cells overcome them!

 Apoptosis

• Apoptosis is programmed cell

death.
• Cells going through apoptosis
actually shrink and shrivel in a
controlled process.
Apoptosis
• Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell
death.
• It is used during early development to
eliminate unwanted cells; for example, those
between the fingers of a developing hand.
• In adults, apoptosis is used to rid the body of
cells that have been damaged beyond repair.
Apoptosis also plays a role in preventing
cancer.
• If apoptosis is for some reason prevented, it
can lead to uncontrolled cell division and the
subsequent development of a tumor.
 CANCER CELLS

• Result of uncontrolled cell division of cells that

have lost ability to regulate cell cycle
• Reproduce more rapidly than normal cells
• Masses formed called ‘tumors’
 Tumors
• Benign=mass that does not spread but can
create obstructions, can be removed surgically.
Look like normal cells
• Malignant=cancer cells that spread and set up
tumors elsewhere (Metastasis)
• Metastasis cause unclear
• One theory is a cancer WBC hybrid
• Cells look different compared to a normal cell
 Abnormal Cell Cycle:
Cancer
• Cancer is the uncontrolled
growth and division of cells.
• Cancer cells can kill an organism
by crowding out normal cells,
resulting in the loss of tissue
function.
 Causes of Cancer
• The changes that occur in the regulation of cell
growth and division of cancer cells are due to
mutations.
• Various environmental factors can affect the
occurrence of cancer cells.
• Factors that can cause cancer are called
carcinogens.
• Examples include smoke, sunlight, chemicals,
radiation, etc.
 Stem Cells
• Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can develop into
specialized cells when under the right conditions.
• After fertilization, the resulting mass of cells divides repeatedly
until there are about 100–150 cells. These cells have not
become specialized.
• Adult stem cells are found in various tissues in the body and
might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue.
• Adult stem cells are less controversial because the adult stem
cells can be obtained with the consent of their donor
THANK
YOU!!!
JESSICA S. ABORDO