Dr. Prabhakara M.C.

Assistant Professor
Dept. of PG Studies & Research in
Industrial Chemistry
Sir. M.V. Govt. Science College
Bommanakatte, Bhadravathi
KARNATAKA
 Introduction
• Chemical Engineering is the branch of engineering which is
concerned with the design and operation of industrial chemical
plants.

• A chemical plant is required to carry out transformation of raw

materials into desired products efficiently, economically and safely.

• Chemical Engineering is that branch of engineering which deals

with the production of bulk materials from basic raw materials in a
most economical and safe way by chemical means.
 Chemical process
Every industrial chemical process is designed to produce
economically a desired product from given raw materials through a
series of steps involving physical or chemical change in the material
under consideration.

The steps involving certain physical changes are known as the unit
operations; whereas the step(s) involving chemical changes in the
material under consideration (i.e., chemical reactions) are known as
the unit process(es).

Typical chemical process

 UNIT OPERATIONS
•The concept of unit operations was introduced by A.D. Little in 1905.
•The operations carried out in the process industries involving physical
changes in the system under consideration are regarded as the unit
operations.
Features :
1.These are physical in nature, i.e., changes involved in them are primarily
physical.
2.These are common to all types of diverse industries.
3.Individual operations have common techniques and are based on the same
scientific principles regardless of the material being processed.
4.They are independent of industries in which they are carried out.
5.Practical methods of carrying them out may be more or less different in
different industries.
Broadly, unit operations are Mechanical Operations,
e.g., size reduction (crushing and grinding), filtration, size separation,
etc.
Fluid Flow Operations in which the pressure difference acts as a
driving force,
Heat Transfer (Operations) in which the temperature difference acts
as a driving force .
Mass Transfer Operations in which the concentration difference/
gradient acts as a driving force,
e.g., distillation, gas absorption, drying, etc.
The theory of unit operations is based on the fundamental laws of
physical sciences such as

law of conservation of mass,

law of conservation of energy,
Newton's laws of motion,
Ideal gas law,
Dalton's law of partial pressure,
Newton's law of cooling,
Raoult's law, etc.
 CLASSIFICATION OF UNIT OPERATIONS

1.Fluid flow : It is concerned with the principles that determine the

flow or transportation of any fluid from one location to another.

2.Mechanical operations : These involve size reduction of solids by

crushing, grinding and pulverising, mixing, conveying and
mechanical separations such as decantation, filtration, settling and
sedimentation, screening, flotation, etc.
3. Heat transfer : It deals with a study of the rate of heat energy
transfer from one place to another owing to the existence of a
temperature difference. It deals with the determination of rates of
heat transfer.

Heat transfer occurs in heating, cooling, phase change, evaporation,

drying, distillation, etc.

The modes/mechanisms by which heat transfer may occur are

conduction, convection and radiation.
4. Mass transfer : It is concerned with the transfer of mass from
one phase to another distinct phase.

Mass transfer operations depend on molecules diffusing or

vaporising from one distinct phase to another and are based on (or
they utilise) differences in vapour pressure, solubility, or diffusivity.

Molecular diffusion and turbulent/eddy diffusion are the

mechanisms of mass transfer.

Mass transfer operations include separation techniques like

distillation, gas absorption, drying, extraction, crystallisation, etc.
Unit Systems
 BASIC SIC UNITS

Mass Kiligram (kg)

Length Meter (m)

Time Second (s)

Temperature Kelvin (K)

Mole Kilogram mole (kmol)

Force Newton (N)

Pressure Newton/(meter)2 [N/m = Pa(Pascal)

Energy Newton . Meter (N.m)= J(joule)

1.Pressure : The units of pressure in SI, MKS and FPS systems are
N/m2 (known as pascal, symbol Pa), kgf/cm2 and lbf / in2 (known as
psi) respectively.
1 atm = 760 torr (or mm Hg) = 101.325 N/m2 or Pa
= 101.325 kPa = 1.033 kgf/cm2

2.Work / Energy : The units of work (energy) in SI, MKS, CGS and
FPS systems are joule (J), m.kgf, erg and ft.lbf respectively.

3.Heat : The units of heat in SI, MKS, CGS and FPS systems are
joule (J), kilocalorie (kcal), calorie (cal) and British thermal unit
(Btu) respectively.
1 cal = 4.187 J,
1 Btu = 1055.056 J
In the SI system, heat flow/heat flux is usually expressed in watts (W).

Some of the prefixes for SI units

(i)giga (G) – multiply by 109

(ii)mega (M) – multiply by 106
(iii)kilo (k) – multiply by 103
(iv)milli (m) – multiply by 10–3
(v)micro () – multiply by 10–6
(vi)nano (n) – multiply by10–9
 CONVERSION FACTORS TO SI UNITS

To convert from To Multiply by

1. Length, L :
ft m 0.3048
cm m 0.01
in mm 25.4
in m 0.0254
2. Area, L2 :
ft2 2
m 0.0929
cm2 2
m 10 –4
3. Volume, L3 :
ft3 3
m 0.02832
cm3 3
m 10 –6
l 3
m 10 –3
4. Velocity, L/ :
ft/s m/s 0.3048
ft/h m/s 8.467  10–5
5. Volumetric flow rate, L3/
ft2/s m3/s 0.02832
ft3/h m3/s 7.867  10–6
 Contd.
l/h m3/s 2  10–7
3
6. Mass, M :
lb kg 0.4536
t kg 1000
g kg 10 –3
7. Density, M/L3 :
lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.019
g/cm3 kg/m3 = g/l 1000
8. Mass flow rate, M/ :
lb/s kg/s 0.4536
lb/h kg/s 1.26  10–4
9. Mass flux, mass velocity,
M/L2 :
kg/(m2·s) 1.356  10–3
lb/(ft2·h)
g/(cm2·s) kg/(m·s) 10
10. Molar flux, molar mass
velocity, mole / L2 :
lbmol / (ft2 · h) gmol / (cm2 · s) kmol / (m2 · s) kmol / (m2 · s)
1.336  10–3
10
11. Force, F :
lbf kgf dyn N N N 4.448
9.807
10–5

12. Pressure, F/L2 :

lbf/ft2 N/m2 = Pa 47.88
std. atm N/m2 = Pa 1.0325  105
std. atm kPa 101.325
in Hg N/m2 = Pa 3.386
in H2O N/m2 = Pa 249.1
dyn/cm2 N/m2 = Pa 10–1
mmHg N/m2 = Pa 133.3
torr N/m2 = Pa 133.3
bar N/m2 = Pa 105
kgf/cm2 N/m2 = Pa 9.808  104
13. Energy, work, heat, FL :
cal N·m = J 4.187
Btu N·m = J 1055
kcal N·m = J 4187
erg N·m = J 10 –7
kW·h N·m = J 3.6  106
14. Enthalpy, FL/M :
Btu/lb (N.m)/kg = J/kg 2326
cal/g (N.m)/kg = J/kg 4187
kcal/kg (N.m)/kg = J/kg 4187
15. Molar enthalpy, FL/mole
Btu/lbmol (N.m)/mol = J/mol 2326
cal/gmol (N.m)/mol = J/mol 4187
16. Heat capacity, specific
heat, FL/MT :
N.m/(kg·K) = J/(kg·K) 4187
Btu/(lb · F) o

N.m/(kg·K) = J/(kg·K) 4187

cal/(g · oC)

17. Molar heat capacity,

FL/mole T :
N.m/(kmol·K) = J/(kmol·K) 4187
Btu/(lbmol · oF)
N.m/(kmol·K) = J/(kmol·K) 4187
cal/(gmol · oC)

18. Energy flux, FL/L2 :

N.m/(m2 · s) = W/m2 3.155
Btu/(ft · h)
2

N.m/(m2 · s) = W/m2 4.187  104

cal/(cm · s)
2

19. Thermal conductivity, FL2/L2T = FL/L2 (T/L) :

Btu·ft / (ft2 · h · oF) N.m/(m·s·K) = W/(m·K) 1.7307
kcal·m/(m2·h·oC) N.m/(m·s·K) = W/(m·K) 1.163
cal·cm/(cm2 · s · oC) N.m/(m·s·K) = W/(m·K)
418.7
20. Heat transfer coefficient, FL/L2T :
Btu/(ft2 · h · oF) N.m/(m2 · s · K) = W/(m2·K) 5.679
cal/(cm2 · s · oC) N.m/(m2 · s · K) = W/(m2·K) 4.187  104
kcal/(m2 · h · oC) N.m/(m2 · s · K) = W/(m2·K) 1.163
21. Power, FL/
(ft·lbf)/s
(N.m)/s = W 1.356
hp (N.m)/s = W 745.7
Btu/h (N.m)/s = W 0.2931
kcal/h (N.m)/s = W 1.163
22. Viscosity, M/L
P (poise  g/(cm.s) kg/(m.s) = (N.s)/m2 0.10
cP kg/(m.s) = (N.s)/m2 0.001
= Pa·s
lb/(ft.s) kg/(m.s) 1.488
While writing the units of fundamental or derived quantity, please
remember the following :

1. Correct : 10 kgf.m incorrect : 10 kgfm

2. Correct : 10 kg incorrect : 10 kgs … no plural form of the unit symbol.
3. Correct : 10 cm incorrect : 10 cm.
… no period (full stop) at the end of the unit symbol.

4. Correct : 10000 /(m2.K) incorrect : 10000 W/m2·K

5. Correct : 10 kW incorrect : 10 k W

Temperature intervals or differences are related by :

1 deg C = 1.8 deg F = 1 K
20 deg C = 20 K
INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is a physical process
involving the transfer of heat from hot area
to cold area.
Heat transfer occurs due to temperature
difference i.e. driving force between the points
where heat is received and where heat is
originating.
Heat always tend to flow from point of high
temperature to point of low temperature.
 INTRODUCTION
 It is a unit operation.
 It is always accompanied by another unit
operation in practice such as…
Heating & cooling of liquid/solid/air
Refrigeration
Evaporation Drying
Distillation
MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER
There are 3 basic mechanisms of heat
transfer.
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
 CONDUCTION
“When heat flow in a body is achieved by
the transfer of the momentum of individual
atoms or molecules without mixing, such
process is known as conduction.”
It takes place in solids and fluids whose
movement is restricted.
e.g. - iron rod such as metal wall of an
evaporator.
 CONDUCTION
 There is no actual movement of molecules.
On receiving energy from surface of heat,
molecules vibrates and pass on energy to
adjacent molecule.
 When both end have same temperature,
heat transfer is stopped.
 Driving force: Difference of temperature
between two end
 CONVECTION
“When heat flow is achieved by actual
mixing of warmer portions and cooler
portions of the same material, the process
is known as convection.”
There is actual physical movement of
molecules.
It takes place in some fluids (i.e. liquids
and gases).
 CONVECTION
e.g. If hot and cold liquids are mixed, the heat
can transfer from hot liquid to cold liquid by
physical movement of molecules. This
method of heat transfer is called as
convection.
 RADIATION
“When heat through space by
electromagnetic waves, such
means of flows
energy transfer is known as radiation.”

E.g. Black surface absorbs most of the

radiation received by it & simultaneously
the absorbed energy is quantitatively
transferred into heat.
 RADIATION
In short…
The hot body emits radiant energy in all
direction. If this radiation strikes a receiver
then part of it may be absorbed and part of
it may be refracted. This method of heat
transfer is called as radiation.
 RADIATION
Few examples in which radiation is utilized
for producing heat…
Solar water heaters

Solar cookers

Microwave ovens

Microwave cookers
 In general, all 3 mechanisms may operate
simultaneously.
• For example…
• In ovens air circulate by fan, so as to transfer heat by
forced convection.
• Simultaneously, heat is transferred by
conduction from the shelf to the material in contact.
• Heat also radiates from hot walls of the oven.
CONDUCTION
 Conduction refers to the mode of heat transfer in which the heat
flow through the material medium occurs without actual
migration of particles of the medium from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature.

 In this chapter, we restrict our discussion to steady state

unidirectional heat conduction in solids.

 By steady state heat flow we mean that the situation of heat

flow in which the temperature at any location along the heat
flow path does not vary with time and the rate of heat transfer
does not vary with time.
 In other words, it is the heat flow under conditions of constant
temperature distribution-temperature is a function of location
only, i.e., temperature varies with location but not with time.

 Hence, steady state heat conduction is the heat transfer by

conduction under conditions of constant temperature
distribution.

 By unidirectional or one dimensional heat flow we mean that

the flow of heat occurring only in one direction, i.e., along one
of the axes of the respective coordinate system used.
(For example, say along the x-direction).
Fourier’s law :
Given by the French scientist : Joseph Fourier.

Fourier's law states that ‘the rate of heat flow by conduction

through a uniform (fixed) material is directly proportional to the
area normal to the direction of the heat flow and the temperature
gradient in the direction of the heat flow’.
Mathematically, the Fourier's law of heat conduction for steady
state heat flow is given by

Q  A [– dT/dn] … (1)

Q = – kA [dT/dn] … (2)
where ,
Q = rate of heat flow/transfer in watts (W),
A = area normal to the direction of heat flow in m2,
T = temperature in K,
n = distance measured normal to the surface,
(i.e., the length of conduction path along the heat flow in m, )
dT/dn = rate of change of temperature with distance
measured in the direction of heat flow (called as temperature
gradient) in K/m.
k = constant of proportionality and is called the thermal
conductivity. It is the characteristic property of a material through
which heat flows.
The negative sign is incorporated in equation (2)

because the temperature gradient is negative (since with an increase

in n there is a decrease in T, i.e., temperature decreases in the
direction of heat flow) and it makes the heat flow positive in the
direction of temperature decrease.

The Fourier's law for a steady state unidirectional (say in the x-

direction) heat conduction then becomes

Q = – kA [dT/dx] … (3)

q = Q/A = – k [dT/dx] … (4)

where
Q is the rate of heat flow, i.e., heat flow per unit time in W, and
q is the heat flux, i.e., the rate of heat flow per unit area in W/m2
(in the x-direction).
In further discussion we will make use of Equation (3).

The Fourier's law [equation (3)] is a fundamental differential

equation of heat transfer by conduction.
It is simply a definition of k.

[The heat flux is defined as the amount of heat transfer per unit
area per unit time or the rate of heat transfer per unit area, Q/A.]
 Thermal Conductivity

 The proportionality constant 'k' given in Equation (2) is called as

the thermal conductivity.

 It is a characteristic property of the material through which heat

is flowing and varies with temperature.

 It is one of the so called transport properties of the material (like

viscosity, ).
  Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a
substance to conduct heat.

 Larger the value of k, higher will be the amount of heat

conducted by that substance.

 Thermal conductivity is the quantity of heat passing through

a quantity of material of unit thickness with unit heat flow area
in unit time when a unit temperature difference is maintained
across the opposite faces of material.
If Q is measured in watts (W = J/s), A in m2, x in m and T in K, then
the unit of k (thermal conductivity) in the SI system is W/(m.K).

 Thermal conductivity depends upon the nature of material and

its temperature.

 Thermal conductivities of solids are higher than that of liquids

and liquids are having higher thermal conductivities than for
gases.
 In general, thermal conductivity of
Gases ranges from 0.006 to 0.6 W/(m·K)
Liquids ranges from 0.09 to 0.7 W/(m·K).
Meals varies from 1 to 420 W/(m·K).

The materials having higher values of thermal conductivity are referred to

as good conductors of heat,
e.g., metals. The best conductor of heat is
silver [k = 420 W/(m·K)]
red copper [k = 395 W/(m·K)],
gold [k = 302 W/(m·K)] and
aluminium [k = 210 W/(m·K)].
 The materials having low values of thermal conductivity [less than
0.20 W/(m·K)] are called as and used as heat insulators to minimise
the rate of heat flow.
e.g. asbestos, glass wool, cork, etc.

For small temperature ranges, thermal conductivity may be taken

as constant but for large temperature ranges, it varies linearly with
temperature and the variation of the thermal conductivity with
temperature is given by the relationship

k = a + bT

where a and b are empirical constants and T is the temperature in K.

One Dimensional Steady State conduction :

Steady state heat conduction is a simpler case in the sense that the
temperature does not vary with time. T is independent of time and
is a function of position in the conducting solid.

One dimensional heat conduction implies that the temperature

gradient exists only in one direction which makes the heat flow
unidirectional.

The cases of heat flow through a slab (plane wall), a circular

cylinder, a sphere and long fins can be analysed by a one
dimensional steady state conduction. x-direction only.
Plane wall (slab) of uniform thickness :
The heat flow through the wall of a stirred tank containing a hot or
cold fluid or the wall of a large furnace can be examples of one
dimensional heat flow. Consider a plane/flat wall as shown in Fig.

x=0 x=x
X
 Consider that the wall is made of a material of thermal
conductivity k
 is of uniform thickness (x) and constant cross-sectional area (A).

 Assume that k is independent of temperature and the area of

wall is very large in comparison with the thickness so that the heat
losses from the edges are negligible.

 A hot face is at temperature T1 and a cold face is at temperature

T2 and both are isothermal surfaces.

 The direction of heat flow is perpendicular to the wall and T

varies in the direction of x-axis.
As in steady state, there can be neither accumulation nor depletion
of heat within the plane wall,

Q is constant along the path of heat flow.

The usual use of Fourier's law requires that the differential equation
(3) be integrated over the entire path from x = 0 to x = x (total
thickness of the wall) as we normally know temperatures only at the
faces.
5

7
 8

10

where R (= x/kA) is the thermal resistance (of the wall material

of thickness x),

Q is the rate of heat flow (rate of heat transfer) and

T is the driving force for heat flow.

Equation (10) equates the rate of heat flow to the ratio of driving
force to thermal resistance.

The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance, which for

heat conduction is :
Conductance = 1/R = 1/(x/kA) = k.A/x … (11)
 Compound resistances in series / Heat conduction
through a composite plane wall :

When a wall is formed out of a series of layers of different

materials, it is called as a composite wall.

 Consider a flat wall constructed of a series of layers of three

different materials as shown in Fig.

 Let k1, k2 and k3 be the thermal conductivities of the materials

of which layers are made.

 Let thicknesses of the layers be x1, x2 and x3 respectively.

Let T1 be the temperature drop across the first layer, T2 that across the second

layer and T3 that across/over the third layer.

Let T be the temperature drop across the entire composite wall.
T

T1 T2 T3

R1 R2 R3
T1 T1 > T' > T" > T2

(T' and T" are interface

Heat flow T'
temperatures)

Q T''
Heat flow
T2
k1 k2 k3

x1 x2 x3

Conduction through resistances in series

Let T1, T', T" and T2 be the temperatures at the faces of the wall as
shown in Fig.
T1 is the temperature of the hot face and T2 is the temperature of the
cold face.
Assume further that the layers are in excellent thermal contact.

Furthermore, let the area of the composite wall, at right angles to

the plane of illustration, be A.

Overall temperature drop is related to individual temperature drops

over the layers by equation
T = T1 + T2 + T3 ….. (1)
It is desired to derive an equation / formula giving the rate of heat
flow through a series of resistances.
Rate of heat flow through the layer-1, i.e., through the material of
thermal conductivity k1 is given by
….. (2)
….. (3)
….. (4)
….. (5)

….. (6)

….. (7)
Adding Equations (2), (6) and (7), we get

….. (8)

Under steady state conditions of heat flow, all the heat passing
through the layer-1 (first resistance) must pass through the layer-2
(second resistance) and in turn pass through the layer-3 (third
resistance),

therefore Q1, Q2 and Q3 must be equal and can be denoted by Q.

Thus, using this fact, Equation (8) becomes
 ….. (9)

….. (10)

….. (11)

….. (12)

Let R1, R2 and R3 be the thermal resistances offered by the layer-1, 2

and 3 respectively.
R1, R2 and R3 are given as
 ….. (13)

….. (14)

….. (15)

With this Equation (12) becomes

….. (16)

If R is the overall resistance, then for resistances in series, we have :

R = R 1 + R 2 + R3 ….. (17)
Then, Equation (16) becomes ….. (18)

Equation (18) is used to calculate the rate of heat flow/heat transfer.

It is the ratio of the overall temperature drop (driving force) to the

overall resistance of the composite wall.

Equation (18) is the same as the equation for the rate of any
process :
One can calculate the temperatures at the interfaces of layers of
which the wall is made by making use of the following relation

….. (19)

Based upon the thickness and thermal conductivity of a layer,

temperature drop in that layer may be large or small fraction of the
total temperature drop.

A thin layer with a low thermal conductivity value may cause a much
larger temperature drop and a steeper thermal gradient than a thick
layer having a high thermal conductivity.
 Heat flow through a
cylinder :
 Consider a thick walled hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. of inside
radius r1, outside radius r2 and length L.

 Let k be the thermal conductivity of the material of cylinder.

 Let the temperature of the inside surface be T1 and that of the

outside surface be T2.

 Assume that T1 > T2, therefore heat flows from the inside of the
cylinder to the outside.

 It is desired to calculate the rate of heat flow for this case.

 dr
Consider a very thin cylinder
(cylindrical element), concentric

r1 with the main cylinder, of radius r,

r
T2 T1 r2 where r is in between r1 and r2.

The thickness of wall of this

cylindrical element is dr.

Heat flow through thick walled cylinder

The rate of heat flow at any radius r is given by

….. (1)

Equation (1) is similar to Fourier’s Equation.

Here the area perpendicular to the heat flow is 2rL and
dx of Fourier’s Equation is equal to dr.

Rearranging the Equation (1) we get,

….. (2)
the only variables in Equation (2) are r and T (assuming k to be
constant).
Integrating Equation (2) between the limits
when r = r1 , T = T1 and

when r = r2 , T = T2 gives

….. (3)

….. (4)

….. (5)
The rate of heat flow through a thick walled cylinder is

….. (6)

Equation (6) can be used to calculate the flow of heat through a

thick walled cylinder.

It can be put into a more convenient form by expressing the rate of

heat flow as

….. (7)
where rm is the logarithmic mean radius and is given by

….. (8)

Am = 2rmL ….. (9)

Am is called the logarithmic mean area.

Equation (7) becomes
….. (10)

rm is known as the logarithmic mean radius. It

is the radius which when applied to the
Where, R = (r2 – r1) / kAm integrated equation for a flat wall, will give
the correct rate of heat flow through a thick-
walled cylinder
Heat flow through a sphere

dr

r1 r
T2 T1 r2

Heat flow through a hallow sphere

 Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2.

 Let T1 be the temperature at the inner surface and T2 be the

temperature at the outer surface.
 Assume that T1 > T2, so that heat will flow from inside to
outside.
 Consider a spherical element at any radius r (between r1 and r2)
of thickness dr.
 Then rate of heat flow according to Fourier's law is given by
….. (1)

where A = 4r2 = area of heat transfer

k = thermal conductivity of a material of which sphere is made
Rearranging Equation (1), we get

….. (2)

Integrating Equation (2) between the limits :

when r = r1 , T = T1

and r = r 2 , T = T2

….. (3)

….. (4)

….. (5)
Rearranging Equation (5), we get

….. (6)

….. (7)

= mean radius which is geometric mean for sphere.

 Equation (7) becomes

….. (8)
 Thermal Insulation
Process equipments such as a reaction vessel, reboiler, distillation
column, evaporator, etc. or a steam pipe will lose heat to the
atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation.

In such cases, the conservation of heat that is usually of steam and

coal is an economic necessity and therefore some form of lagging
should be applied to the hot surfaces.
Insulation is necessary
(i) to prevent an excessive flow of heat to the surroundings from
process units and pipelines in which heat is generated, stored or
conveyed at temperatures above the surrounding temperature,
(ii) to prevent an excessive flow of heat from the outside to
materials which must be kept at temperatures below that of the
surroundings,
(iii) to provide for protection of personnel from skin damage
through contact with very hot and very cold surfaces (to provide a
safe work environment) and
(iv) to provide comfortable/acceptable working environment.
The important requirements of an insulating material are as follows

1. It should have a low thermal conductivity.

2. It should withstand working temperature range.
3. It should have a sufficient durability and an adequate
mechanical strength. This includes resistance to moisture and
the chemical environment.
4. It should be easy to apply, non-toxic, readily available,
inexpensive (low basic material cost, installation cost and
maintenance cost).
5. It should not create a fire hazard.
 commonly employed lagging materials in industry.
Cork [k = 0.025 W/(m·K)],
asbestos (k = 0.10),
glass wool (k = 0.024),
85 percent magnesia (k = 0.04)

 Cork is common in refrigeration plants. 85% magnesia with

asbestos, glass wool are widely used for lagging steam pipes.

 Thin aluminium sheeting is often used to protect the lagging.

Problems on Conduction
Heat Transfer