Most of the segmentation algorithms are based on one of two basic properties of image intensity values: discontinuity

and similarity. In the first category, the approach is to partition an image into regions based on abrupt changes in
intensity, such as edges. Approaches in the second category are based on partitioning an image into regions that are
similar according to a set of predefined criteria. Thresholding, region growing, and region splitting and merging are
examples of methods in this category.
FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 10.1 illustrates the preceding concepts. Figure 10.1(a) shows an image of a region of constant intensity
superimposed on a darker background, also of constant intensity. These two regions comprise the overall image. Figure
10.1(b) shows the result of computing the boundary of the inner region based on intensity discontinuities. Points on the
inside and outside of the boundary are black (zero) because there are no discontinuities in intensity in those regions. To
segment the image, we assign one level (say, white) to the pixels on or inside the boundary, and another level (e.g., black)
to all points exterior to the boundary. Figure 10.1(c) shows the result of such a procedure. We see that conditions (a)
through (c) stated at the beginning of this section are satisfied by this result. The predicate of condition (d) is: If a pixel is
on, or inside the boundary, label it white; otherwise, label it black. We see that this predicate is TRUE for the points
labeled black or white in Fig. 10.1(c). Similarly, the two segmented regions (object and background) satisfy condition (e).

The next three images illustrate region-based

segmentation. Figure 10.1(d) is similar to
Fig. 10.1(a), but the intensities of the inner
region form a textured pattern. Figure
10.1(e) shows the result of computing
intensity discontinuities in this image. The
numerous spurious changes in intensity
make it difficult to identify a unique
boundary for the original image because
many of the nonzero intensity changes are
connected to the boundary, so edge-based
segmentation is not a suitable approach.
 POINT, LINE, AND EDGE DETECTION
The focus of this section is on segmentation methods that are based on detecting sharp, local changes in
intensity. The three types of image characteristics in which we are interested are isolated points, lines, and
edges.
Edge pixels are pixels at which the intensity of an image changes abruptly, and
Edges (or edge segments) are sets of connected edge pixels
Edge detectors are local image processing tools designed to detect edge pixels.
Line may be viewed as a (typically) thin edge segment in which the intensity of the background on either side of
the line is either much higher or much lower than the intensity of the line pixels.
isolated point may be viewed as a foreground (background) pixel surrounded by background (foreground) pixels.
 BACKGROUND

Local changes in intensity can be detected using derivatives. For reasons that will become evident shortly, first- and second-
order derivatives are particularly well suited for this purpose. Derivatives of a digital function are defined in terms of finite
differences. There are various ways to compute these differences.

We require that any approximation used for first derivatives (1) must be zero in areas of constant intensity; (2) must be
nonzero at the onset of an intensity step or ramp; and (3) must be nonzero at points along an intensity ramp.

Similarly, we require that an approximation used for second derivatives (1) must be zero in areas of constant intensity; (2)
must be nonzero at the onset and end of an intensity step or ramp; and (3) must be zero along intensity ramps. Because
Consider Fig. 10.2. Part (a) shows an image of various objects, a line, and an isolated point. Figure 10.2(b) shows a horizontal
intensity profile (scan line) through the center of the image, including the isolated point. Transitions in intensity between the
solid objects and the background along the scan line show two types of edges: ramp edges (on the left) and step edges (on the
right). As we will discuss later, intensity transitions involving thin objects such as lines often are referred to as roof edges.
Figure 10.2(c) shows a simplified profile, with just enough points to make it possible for us to analyze manually how the first-
and second-order derivatives behave as they encounter a point, a line, and the edges of objects.
Consider the properties of the first and second derivatives as we traverse the profile from left to right. Initially, the first-order
derivative is nonzero at the onset and along the entire intensity ramp, while the second-order derivative is nonzero only
at the onset and end of the ramp.
Next we encounter the isolated noise point. Here, the magnitude of the response at the point is much stronger for the second-
than for the first-order derivative. This is not unexpected, because a second-order derivative is much more aggressive than a
first-order derivative in enhancing sharp changes. Thus, we can expect second-order derivatives to enhance fine detail
(including noise) much more than first-order derivatives. The line in this example is rather thin, so it too is fine detail, and we
see again that the second derivative has a larger magnitude.

Second derivative has opposite signs (negative to positive or positive to negative) as it transitions into and out of an edge. As
we move into the edge, the sign of the second derivative is used also to determine whether an edge is a transition from light to
dark (negative second derivative), or from dark to light (positive second derivative)

The approach of choice for computing first and second derivatives at every pixel location in an image is to use spatial
convolution. For the 3x3 filter kernel in Fig. 10.3, the procedure is to compute the sum of products of the kernel coefficients
with the intensity values in the region encompassed by the kernel
 DETECTION OF ISOLATED POINTS
Based on the conclusions reached in the preceding section, we know that point detection should be based on the
second derivative.