Classification in terms of meaning 

1. A/an + a noun: referring to something/person in general (~noun plural, zero article) 

e.g. A cat is a domestic animal. (Cats are domestic animals.) 
2. By means of label: a/an + noun after the verb be 
e.g. Andrew Bright is an architect.
3. A/an + adjective = noun to describe the people 
e.g. She's American = She's an American. 
4. Representative/example/typical or groups of class 
e.g. A child needs love. (All children need love.) 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
5. Referring to a "certain person" 
A/an + tiles (Mr, Mrs,) = a certain person whom I don't know.
e.g. A Mr Smith phoned you.
6. Quantity: a/an = only one 
- Not specifying any particular person or thing: 
e.g. I'd like an apple. (i.e only one; it doesn't matter which)
- When expressing this in the plural, we use some or any 
e.g. I'd like some apples/I don't want any apples. 
- Referring to "only one":  e.g. I have a car. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
8. A/an when something is mentioned for the first time 
e.g. There were a man and a woman in the garden.
9. A/an with reference to measurement: referring to one unit of measurement in
terms of another
To emphasize each, we use per instead of a/an: 
+ Price in relation to weight: 80p a/per kilo
+ Distance in relation to speed: 40 km an/per hour
+ Distance/fuel consumption: 30 miles a/per gallon
+ Frequency/time: twice a/per day

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
10. A/an after what and such 
- A/an used with countable nouns after What in exclamations: 
e.g. What a surprise! What an interesting story! 
- What a lot...! (not How much many...!) used for exclamations:
e.g. What a lot of flowers! What a lot of trouble!
- A/an used after such when we wish to emphasize degree: 
e.g. That child is such a pest! My boss is such an idiot! 
11. A/an with pairs of nouns 
e.g. a cup and saucer, a hat and coat 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
12. A/an with reference to illnesses/conditions 
- the indefinite article is compulsory: to have a cold, a headache, a sore throat
- the indefinite article is optional: to catch (a) cold, to have (a) backache
- with illnesses which are plural in form (measles, mumps, shingles) no article is used. 
e.g. My children are in bed with mumps. 
- with illnesses which are defined as uncountable (flu, gout, hepatitis...) no article is
used: 
e.g. I was in bed with flu for ten days.

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
1. Making general statements 
e.g. The cobra is dangerous. (a certain class of snakes as distinct from other classes, such
as the grass snake)
Comparing with: 
Cobras are dangerous. (the whole class: all the creatures with the characteristics of
snakes called cobras). 
A cobra is a very poisonous snake (a cobra as an example of a class of reptile know as
snake) .

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
2. Expressing the groups as a whole 
- the + nationality adjective: particularly those ending in -ch, -sh and -ese are used after
the when referring to "the group as a whole":
e.g. The British = the British people in general
- the + plural names 
+ Families: The Price sisters have opened a boutique. 
+ Races: The Europeans are a long way from political unity. 
+ Politics: The Liberals want electoral reform. 
- Titles beginning with the given to particular groups to emphasize their identity: the
Beatles, the Jesuits 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
3. Specific group: the + collective nouns or plural countable: the police, the public... 
Many plural countables can be used in a collective sense in the same way when particular
groups are picked out from the rest of the human community: e.g. the bosses, the unions. 
Getting the unions and the bosses to agree isn't easy. 
4. Something mentioned for the second time 
e.g. Singleton is a quiet village near Chichester. The village has a popular of a few
hundred people. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
5. The - the modifier "of - phrase": making clear the meaning of the noun: i.e, the
definite article the is needed. The topics referred to (e.g freedom, life) are specified by
means of "the + noun + of": 
e.g. The freedom of the individual is worth lighting for. 
The life of Napoleon was very stormy. 
6. Specifying by means of clauses and phrases: we can specify a person, thing. etc.
grammatically by means of the + clause or the... + phrase: 
e.g. The Smith you're looking for no longer lives here. 
The letters on the shelf are for you. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
7. Specifying within a limited context: The can be used in context which are limited enough for the
listener or reader to identify who or what is referred to: 
- People: Who's at the door? - It's the postman. (the usual postman)
- Place: Where's Jenny? - She's gone to the butcher's (shop). (single identifiable place) 
- Things: Pass me the salt, please.
- Parts of whole:
+ a human being: the body, the brain, the head, the heart, the lungs, the mind
+ a room: the ceiling, the door, the floor 
+ an object: the back/the front, the centre, the inside/the outside, the top/the bottom.
+ a town: the shops, the street 
+ an appliance: the on/off switch 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
8. In time expressions 
- in time sequence: the beginning, the middle, the end, the first/last, the next, the
following day, the present, the past, the future 
- with parts of the day: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening 
- with seasons: (the) spring/summer, autumn, winter
- in dates (in spoken, but in written language): I'll see you on May 24th. (spoken as May
the 24th) 
- in fixed time expressions: all the while, at the moment, for the time being, in the end 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
9. With unique items other than places names: (i.e. where there is only one of a kind) 
- Institutions and organizations: the Boy Scouts, the United Nations 
Compare items with zero: Congress, Parliament 
- The press (The is part of the title): The Economist, The New Yorker. The Spectator, The Times 
Note: the press, the radio, the television.
Compare: What's on (the) television? What's on TV? 
Items with zero: Life, Newsweek, Punch, Time
- Beliefs: the angels, the Furies, the gods, the saints
Compare: God, Muhammed, etc. (proper nouns)
- Climate, etc.: the climate, the temperature, the weather
- Species: the dinosaurs, the human race, the reptiles
Compare: Man developed earlier than people think. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
10. Other references with the 
- with superlatives: It's the worst play I've ever seen. 
- with musical instruments: Tom plays the piano/the flute/the violin. 
- fixed phrases with the… the: the sooner the better 
- fixed expressions: do the shopping, make the beds

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
1. The class as a whole: zero article + countable/uncountable 
- Zero article + plural countable nouns 
People (Women are fighting for their rights.); Places (Museums are closed on
Mondays.); Food (Beans contain a lot of fibre.); Occupations (Doctors always support
each other.); Nationalities (Italians make delicious ice-cream.); Animals; Insects; Plants;
Products (Watches have become very accurate.)
These can be modified by adjectives and other phrases: women all over the world, local
museums, broad beans, quartz watches. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
- Zero article + uncountable nouns (always singular)
Food (Refined foods like sugar should be avoided.); Drink; Substances (Oil is essential
for the manufacture of plastic.); Collections (Money makes the world go round.); Colors;
Activities (-ing) (Smoking is bad for the health.); Other activities; Sports, games;
Abstract (Life is short.); Politics; Philosophy; Languages (English is a world language.) 
These can be modified by adjectives and other phrases: purified water, oil from the North
Sea, heavy smoking. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
2. Unique Items: zero article + proper nouns 
- Zero article + names of people: First names (Elizabeth was my mother's name.); Surnames; Full
names; Initials (J. Somers is the pseudonym of a famous author.)
Names can be modified by adjectives: young Jack, Frank Robinson Jr (= Junior, AmE).
- Zero article + titles
Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, Dr (full stops may be used optionally after the abbreviations Mr, Mrs and Dr). 
Mr and Mrs are always followed by a surname or first name + surname (not just a first name!): Mr
and Mrs Jackson are here to see you. 
Mr and Mrs cannot normally be used on their own as a form of address. Miss is also followed by a
surname (Miss Jackson) but is used as a form of address by schoolchildren (Please Miss!). 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
3. Zero article for days, months, seasons and holidays 
e.g. Mondays are always difficult. Monday is always a difficult day.
4. Zero article for artists and their work: The names of artists can represent their work
as a whole: Brahms, Keats, Leonardo, Lorca, Rembrandt 
e.g. Bach gives me a lot of pleasure. (i.e. Bach's music) 
Adjectival combinations: early Beethoven, late Schubert, etc. 
5. Zero article for academic subjects and related topics: Art, Biology, History,
Physics, etc.
e.g. According to Henry Ford, ‘History is bunk’. 
Adjectival combinations: e.g. Renaissance Art, American History 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
6. Combinations with the zero article 
Zero article for times of the day and night: combinations are common with at, by, after
and before: 
at dawn/daybreak, by day/night, before morning 
at/by/before/after 4 o'clock: We got up at dawn to climb to the summit.
7. Zero article for meals in general: breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, supper
e.g. Dinner is served. Michael's at lunch. Let's have breakfast. 
Note that the is used when a meal is specified: e.g. The breakfast I ordered still hasn't
arrived.
and a is used if the noun is specific: e.g. That was a very nice dinner. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
8. Set combinations 
Zero article for nouns like school, hospital
Referring to their ‘primary purpose’, that is the activity associated with them: e.g. He's in
bed (for the purpose of sleeping). 
Frequently combining with be in/at, have been/gone to: 
e.g. He was sent to prison for four years. 
- Noun used with the when the item, etc. is specified:
e.g. Your bag is under the bed. There's a meeting at the school at 6.
Words such as cathedral, factory, mosque, office, etc. are always used with a or the. 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
Zero article for transport: by air, by car, by ship, by train 
e.g. We traveled all over Europe by bus. 
- By + noun is used in fixed expressions of this kind, but not where the means of
transport is specified: 
e.g. I came here on the local bus. You won't go far on that old bike. 
Zero article for 'pairs‘ joined by and 
e.g. father and son, young and old, day and night, light and dark, sun and moon 
This business has been run by father and son for 20 years. 
Have you ever read Peace and War? 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
Zero article in fixed phrases:
- Prepositional phrases hand: 
at (hand, risk); by (accident, arrangement, chance); for (example, fear (of), instance); in
(addition, advance); on (account, call); out of (hand, sight); to (measure, order); under
(contract) 
- Parallel structures: arm in arm, heart to heart, year after year 
- Double structures: hand in glove, head over heels, man and wife 
- Verb + noun: lose face, make conversation, take part talk shop, give way 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
Zero article after what and such 
The noun is stressed after What, and such is stressed before the noun: 
- plural countable: 
e.g. What fools they are! 
We had such problems getting through Customs! 
- (singular) uncountable: 
e.g. What freedom young people enjoy nowadays! 
Young people enjoy such freedom nowadays! 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
9. Zero article for unspecified quantity 
Sometimes we do not use some or any to refer to indefinite number or amount: 
e.g. I have presents for the children. I have news for you. 
Are there presents for me too? Is there news for me too? 
10. Deliberate omission of a/an and the 
Newspaper headlines: HOTEL FIRE DISASTER 
Nouns in the use of the zero article is very common in journalism (function as
apposition): e.g. Film star Britt Ekland…; War hero Douglas Bader;.... 

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 Classification in terms of meaning 
11. A/an, the, zero article + nouns in apposition
D.H. Lawrence, an author from Nottingham, wrote a book called 'Sons and Lovers. 
(This implies that the reader may not have heard of D.H. Lawrence.) 
D.H. Lawrence, the author of 'Sons and Lovers, died In 1930. 
(This implies that many people have heard of D.I. Lawrence, or, if not, of ‘Sons and
Lovers’.) 
D.H. Lawrence, author of Sons and Lovers died in 1930. 
(This implies that everyone has heard of D.H. Lawrence.) 
12. Zero article or the with place names see Appendix 3

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