CANCER

- By Rishika
Vijayvargiya
Class :12th A
INTRODUCTION
Cancer is a disease characterised by
breaking down of regulatory
mechanisms of normal cells,
uncontrolled division of cells and
the movement of proliferating cells
to other parts of the body.
HISTORY OF CANCER
Cancer has existed for all of human
history. The earliest written record
regarding cancer is from circa 1600
BC in the Egyptian  A tumour removed by surgery

Edwin Smith Papyrus and

describes breast cancer.
In the 15th, 16th and 17th
centuries, it became acceptable for
doctors to dissect bodies to
discover the cause of death.
The first treatment of cancer was
radiation therapy of cure cancer
was found in 1899.
 HOW CANCER CELLS DIFFER FROM NORMAL CELLS

NORMAL CELLS:
Normal cells remain adhered to one another . They have a definite life span . As
some old cells die, they are replaced by new cells which arise by cell division
and differentiation .
Both functioning of cells as well as division and differentiation of new cells are
highly regulated so that the number of cells in a tissue or an organ of an adult
remain almost the same.
CANCER CELLS :
Cancer cells do not remain adhered to one another. There is breakdown of any
regulatory mechanism, a cell develops the ability to undergo uncontrolled
repeated divisions forming a clone of cells.
The cell slip past one another forming a mass of undifferentiated cells called
neoplasm or tumour.
Tumour results in pressing of surrounding normal cells and tissues causing
discomfort and some diruption of their functioning.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CANCER CELL AND
NORMAL CELL
CANCER CELL
1. The cells do not require
extracellular growth factors.
2. Cell death is inhibited.
3. Nucleus is irregular,
hypertrophied and granular.
4. The cells are rich in
melanin, mucus, fat drops
and lysosomes.
5. Mitochondrial cristae are
fewer.
NORMAL CELL
1. The cells require
extracellular growth factors.
2. Normal cells have finite life
span.
3. Nucleus is rounded or oval
with normal chromatin
reticulum.
4. They have a normal number
or amount of these
substances.
5. Mitochondrial cristae are
normal.
 TYPES OF TUMOURS

benign tumour :
Benign tumour is noncancerous or nonmalignant tumour which remains
confined to the original position of its formation, stops increasing in size
after certain growth, gets encapsulated in connective issues so that tissue is
unable to infiltrate into adjacent tissues, e.g., warts, fibroid uterus. It
may ,however , cause discomfort or pain.
Malignant tumour:
malignant tumour is the actual cancerous tumour which grows rapidly because
the dividing cells continue proliferation, produce angiogenic factors for
blood supply and become progressively invasive.
Malignant tumour is not encapsulated. Its cells reach other parts of the body
through blood, lymph and formation of secondaries. They form new
malignant tumours in invaded parts. The phenomenon is called metastasis.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CANCER CELLS
i. Cancer is heritable because it is passed from parent cells to daughter cells.
ii. Cancer is transplantable. If cancer cells are injected into healthy animal, the disease
spreads as more cancer cells divide from the original.
iii. Cancer is dedifferentiated. Less specialized than the cell it descends from.
iv. Cancer cells lack control inhibition. Cancer cells lack the ability to stop dividing
once it touches other cells.
v. Cancer displays invasiveness. An invasive malignant tumor grows irregularly
sending tentacles in all directions. In fact the word “cancer” means crab in Latin
because malignant tumors resemble a crab.
vi. Cancer can metastasize- means that it can spread and move to a new location in the
body. After cancer spreads, it becomes more difficult to treat, because the DNA of
secondary tumor cells often mutate many times causing chromosome abnormalities.
 TYPES OF CANCER
on the basis of tissue affected, some 200 clinically distinct cancers are
recognised . however they are grouped under five types :-

1. Carcinomas :- They are cancer of epithelial tissues like skin , and

epithelial lining of internal organs, e.g. mucous membranes, lungs,
breast, pancreas, stomach, mouth, throat, uterus, cervix, prostate, etc.
carcinomas account for nearly 85% of all tumours.
2. Melanomas :- they are tumours arising from melanocytes of skin and
other organs, e.g. mucosal melanoma, nodular melanoma, superficial
spreading melanoma.
3. Sarcomas :- they are cancerous growths of mesodermal tissues like
bone, cartilage, fat, etc. in human beings, sarcomas constitute only one
percent of all tumours, e.g., osteoma , lipoma.
4. Leukemias and lymphomas :- they are cancer of haemopoietic cells. In
leukemia there is very high increase in number of leucocytes. Immature
stem cells also occur. Leukemia is also called blood cancer.
5. Adenoma :- it is cancer caused by excessive growth of glandular
epithelium, e.g., thyroid, pituitary, adrenal glands.
 CAUSES OF CANCER
ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF ACTION

• Oncogenic transformations : they change genetic

material from non-oncogenic state to oncogenic state,
e.g., chemicals, radiations.
• Tumour promoters : they are actually cocarcinogens
which promote tumour formation through proliferation of
cells that have already undergone oncogenic
transformation, e.g.., some growth factors, hormones.
• Tumour viruses : they are viruses which are suspected
of causing cancer through oncogenic transformation.
Both DNA and RNA viruses are suspected to do it.
 ON THE BASIS OF NATURE
Chemical carcinogens : A number of chemicals are known to cause cancer ,
E.g. , nitrosodimethylene ( cigarette smoke , lung cancer ) synthetic dyes
( blood cancer ) sex hormones (breast cancer ) artificial sweeteners and
excessive animal protein ( digestive tract cancer ) etc .
Physical carcinogenes : They include mechanical irritants , heat and
radiations .
(a) Mechanical Irritants : Friction, trauma and continuous irritation seem to
produce cancer , e.g., jagged teeth, dhoti in maharashtrian women .
(b) Heat : Reverse smoking cause mouth cancer . Kangri (heating device )
increases incidence of cancer in kashmiris .
(c) Radiations : UV radiations , X- rays , radioactive isotopes and other
ionising radiations cause cancers , e.g., leukemia , skin cancer .
Biological carcinogenes : some viruses called viral oncogenes that causes
cancer . One-fifth cancer is caused by viruses ,e.g. HSV , HPV. .
 CARCINOGENESIS PHASES
(A)Initiation : it involves the alteration, change, or mutation of genes
arising spontaneously or induced by exposure to a carcinogenic
agent.
(B)promotion :it is considered to be a relatively lengthy and reversible
process in which actively proliferating preneoplastic cells
accumulate.
(C)Progression : it is the final stage of neoplastic transformation, where
genetic and phenotypic changes and cell proliferation occur. This
involves a fast increase in the tumor size, where the cells may
undergo further mutations with invasive and metastatic potential.
(D) Metastasis : it involves the spread of cancer cells from the primary
site to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or the lymph
system.
 DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS

 In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is

stained and examined under microscope {histopathological studies}
by a pathologist .
 Radiography {Use of X-rays}, CT {computed tomography } and MRI
{magnetic resonance imaging } are very useful to detect cancers of
the internal organs.
 Computed tomography uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional
image of the internals of an object.
 MRI uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to
accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the living
tissue.
 Antibodies against cancer –specific antigens are also for detection of
certain cancers.
 TREATMENT OF CANCER
(i) Surgery: Cancers in organs like the breast, prostate and testicles can be cured by the
removal of those parts through surgery. This is the oldest known treatment option,
which is effective if metastasis has not taken place and if cancer is localised to a
small portion of the body. It cannot be employed for leukaemias.

 Side effects :
Pain, infection, loss of organ function, fatigue, bleeding, blood clots etc.
(ii) Radiation therapy: This is the most commonly used therapeutic option against cancer.
During this therapy, high-energy x-rays created in special machines and high-energy

gamma-rays emitted from radium are focused specifically on the cancerous cells. These

high energy radiations damage the molecules making up the cancerous cells. This

treatment can independently shrink the tumour size or obliterate the cancer cells. This

treatment option is effective in the case of skin, lips, mouth and cervical cancers.This

therapy is administrated in almost 80% of cancers.

 Side effects:

Tiredness, rashes or redness, loss of appetite, temporary lowering of the WBC counts and

can damage the normal tissues also that lie adjacent to the cancerous tissues.
( iii) Chemotherapy : This therapy involves the use of chemicals which can

inhibit the active cell division process so that the process of apoptosis(cell

death) gets stimulated within the cancer cells. This treatment is generally

chosen as an option in case of cancers which have spread to different parts of

the body as medicines can travel to different part of the body. Medicines of

the drugs used during chemotherapy are mercaptopurine, 6-aminopterin, etc.

Side effects:

Hair loss, nausea, vomiting , reduced immune responses and anaemia.

( iv) Immunotherapy: This novel therapeutic option aims to boost u the
immune system so that it can attack the tumours. For example, in
Radioimmunotherapy, radioisotope linked monoclonal antibodies are
used for the treatment of cancer. A significant success had been
achieved in the treatment of breast cancer through immunotherapy.

Side effects:
Temporary flu- like symptoms such as fever and chills, muscle aches,
weakness, loss of appetite and diarrhea etc.