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Vocabulary:

Theory, research, and promising


practices

Michael C. McKenna
Today’s Goals

 Learn about how children acquire


word meanings
 Examine research findings on
vocabulary instruction
 Discuss scientifically-based
instructional approaches
 practice making a vocab. lesson
Is the word vocabulary
in your vocabulary?
What is vocabulary?
 Speaking vocabulary
 Listening vocabulary
Modality  Reading vocabulary
 Writing vocabulary
 General vocabulary
Domain
 Technical vocabulary
 Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
 Speaking vocabulary
 Listening vocabulary
Modality  Reading vocabulary
 Writing vocabulary
 General vocabulary
Domain
 Technical vocabulary
 Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
 Speaking vocabulary
 Listening vocabulary
Modality  Reading vocabulary
 Writing vocabulary
 General vocabulary
Domain
 Technical vocabulary
 Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
 Speaking vocabulary
 Listening vocabulary
Modality  Reading vocabulary
 Writing vocabulary
 General vocabulary
Domain
 Technical vocabulary
 Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
 Speaking vocabulary
 Listening vocabulary
Modality  Reading vocabulary
 Writing vocabulary
 General vocabulary
Domain
 Technical vocabulary
 Meaning vocabulary
1755 Dictionary of the
English Language
1755 Dictionary of the
English Language

114,000 words
1755 Dictionary of the
English Language

114,000 words

impertransibility
queck
nould
1755 Dictionary of the
English Language

114,000 words

2005 Oxford English


Dictionary (3rd ed.)
1755 Dictionary of the
English Language

114,000 words

2005 Oxford English


Dictionary (3rd ed.)

660,000+ words
webcam
cyberphobic
doh

2005 Oxford English


Dictionary (3rd ed.)

660,000+ words
English users follow set rules for
coining new words, thus adding
greatly to the number of potential
words in the language.
English users follow set rules for
coining new words, thus adding
greatly to the number of potential
words in the language.

The postman likes our street


because it is dogless.
Are you a logophile?
Are you a logophile?

words
A Vocabulary Riddle
To comprehend what we read, at least
95% of the words must be recognized
automatically.

How is this possible given the number of


words in English?
50K
45,000
40K

30K

20K 17,000

10K
5,000
1,500
0
K 12
Oral vocabulary at the end of first
grade is a significant predictor of
comprehension ten years later.

Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading


acquisition and its relation to experience and ability 10
years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.
Why is a large vocabulary
associated with good
comprehension?
The Instrumental Hypothesis

Vocabulary aids comprehension by


providing the reader with a tool, or
instrument.
The Knowledge Hypothesis

It’s not so much the words themselves


that help, but the knowledge they
represent.
The Aptitude Hypothesis

Comprehension and vocabulary are


correlated “not because one causes
the other, but because both reflect a
more general underlying verbal
aptitude.” – Stahl & Nagy (2005)
The Access Hypothesis

A larger vocabulary means


 a deeper understanding of words
(including nuances of meaning)
 quicker access to words in the
lexicon
 flexibility in deciding among
multiple meanings
The Reciprocal Hypothesis

Having a bigger
vocabulary makes
you a better reader.

Reading more Being a better reader


gives you a bigger makes it possible for
vocabulary you to read more
Four Obstacles to Acquiring a
Large Vocabulary

1. The number of words in English is very


large.
2. Academic English differs from the kind
of English used at home.
3. Word knowledge involves far more than
learning definitions.
4. Sources of information about words are
often hard to use or unhelpful.
– Stahl & Nagy
(2005)
How do we learn words
from experiences?
gavagai

An aborigine points to a running rabbit


and says “Gavagai.” Can you infer the
word’s meaning?
Each encounter with a word helps
a child narrow its meaning. For
example, if he next hears the word
gavagai used to refer to a sitting
rabbit, the child will infer that
running is not connected with the
meaning.
Young children learn word meanings
from one-on-one interactions with
parents and siblings. These
interactions may be rich or poor.
Consider two examples based on
Hart and Risley’s (1995) comparison
of families of different socioeconomic
levels.
Yeah.

Do I have to
eat these?
“Motherese”

Yes, because
they have
vitamins that
will help you
grow and get
stronger.
Do I have to
eat these?
What does it mean
to know a word?
A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge

A vague sense of the meaning

Narrow knowledge with aid of context

Good knowledge but shaky recall

Rich, decontextualized knowledge,


connected to other word meanings
A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge

A vague sense of the meaning

Narrow knowledge with aid of context

Good knowledge but shaky recall

Rich, decontextualized knowledge,


connected to other word meanings
The Reading System (Adams)
Context
Processor

Meaning
Processor

Orthographic Phonological
Processor Processor

Reading Writing Speech


The Reading System (Adams)
Context
Processor
Lexicon

Meaning
Processor

Orthographic Phonological
Processor Processor

Reading Writing Speech


lexicon
That part of long-term memory
devoted to word knowledge
How is a word stored
in the lexicon?
cat
cat c-a-t
/kat/
“meow”
cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
animal

“meow”
cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
animal
mammal

“meow”
cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
animal
mammal

“meow”
cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
animal
mammal

“meow”
dog cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
animal
mammal

“meow”
dog cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
animal
mammal

“meow”
dog cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
Dual Coding Theory
Two systems are involved in learning words.
One contains verbal information, the other non-
verbal (images). When we learn a word, real-
world images that we associate with the concept
are also stored. Accessing a word in the lexicon
therefore involves both the verbal system and
non-verbal (imagery) system.

~ Moral ~
When teaching new words, use pictures and
other images where possible.
animal
mammal

“meow”
dog cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
The Nonverbal
(Imagery) System
New meanings and even new
pronunciations of a word may be
added to a child’s lexicon over time.

próduce prodúce
produce
Raw veggies to make
lean
To rest To rely on
one another
object person
against for
another support

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 •••
Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann &
E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-
40). New York: Guilford.
Is wide reading enough?
Why Wide Reading Why Wide Reading
Is Enough Is Not Enough
Vocabulary size and Context is generally
the amount a child unreliable as a means
reads are correlated. of inferring word
meanings.
Direct instruction
cannot possibly Most words occur too
account for the number infrequently to provide
of word meanings the number of
children acquire. exposures needed to
learn them.
Marzano, R.J. (2004). The developing vision of vocabulary instruction. In J.F.
Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to
practice (pp. 100-117). New York: Guilford.
“There is no obvious reason why
direct vocabulary instruction and
wide reading cannot work in
tandem.”
– Marzano (2004, p. 112)

Robert
Marzano
The Vocabulary Catch-22
Children need to learn more words to
read well, but they need to read well to
learn more words.

McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers.


Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.
What are some of the
guiding principles of
teaching vocabulary?
Guiding Principle

Preteach key words to


improve comprehension.
In 1367, Marain and the settlements
ended a seven-year war with the
Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this
war, Languria was driven out of East
Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and
the other lands that once belonged to
Languria. This brought peace to the
Bacolean settlements. The settlers no
longer had to worry about attacks from
Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be
part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years
later, these same people would be
fighting the Marish for independence, or
freedom from United Marain’s rule.
In 1763, Britain and the colonies
ended a seven-year war with the French
and Indians. As a result of this war,
France was driven out of North America.
Britain would now rule Canada and the
other lands that once belonged to France.
This brought peace to the American
colonies. The settlers no longer had to
worry about attacks from Canada. The
Americans were happy to be part of
Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later,
these same people would be fighting the
British for independence, or freedom from
Great Britain’s rule.
Guiding Principle

Provide more than definitions.


WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response
WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

truncate “to cut off”


= DEFINITION

s Response

e “to cut off”

he truncated the ligh


Guiding Principle

Combine definitions and


contextual examples.
Guiding Principle

Minimize rote copying of


definitions.
Guiding Principle

Introduce new words in


related clusters.
antennae leg
thorax
wing

abdomen

In content areas,
clustering words is natural!
But general vocabulary words can be
clustered if you work at it!
Guiding Principle

Provide brief, periodic review.


A Thought Experiment
Group 1
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
• This hour is uninterrupted.
Group 2
Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute
sessions, 1 per month for 6 months.
Assuming that no one
encountered any of the 20
words again, which group
would do better on a test
after a delay of 10 years?
Massed
vs.
Distributed
Practice
What did the National
Reading Panel conclude
about teaching
vocabulary?
NRP Findings on Vocabulary

 Teaching vocabulary improves general


comprehension ability.
 Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning
and comprehension of a selection.
 Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental
exposure.
 Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are
important.
NRP Findings on Vocabulary

 A combination of definitions and contextual


examples works better than either one alone.
 Many instructional methods can be effective in
teaching vocabulary.
 Instructional methods should result in active
engagement.
 Both direct and indirect methods should be
used.
NRP Findings on Vocabulary

 The more connections that are made to


a word, the better the word tends to be
learned.
 Computer applications can be effective.
 The effectiveness of some instructional
methods depends on the age or ability
of the children.
What the NRP said they didn’t know
about vocabulary instruction

 Which methods work best with students of different ages


and abilities?
 How can technology best be used to teach vocabulary?
 How is vocabulary best integrated with comprehension
instruction?
 What combinations of instructional methods tend to work
best?
 What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?
To what extent do you see these
findings reflected in your core
materials?
What are some of the
most effective ways of
teaching vocabulary?
Some Research-Based Techniques
 Read-Alouds
 Semantic Feature Analysis
 Graphic Organizers
 List-Group-Label
 Semantic Maps (word webs)
 Word Lines
 Word Sorts
 Possible Sentences
Read-Alouds
Planning a Read-Aloud
 Choose engaging, well-illustrated books.
 A number of words should be unknown to about
half the students.
 Choose 3 target words that are important for
comprehension but likely to be unfamiliar.
 Keep track of the words you choose.
 Plan to repeat the read-aloud.
 Plan multiple exposures in the days following.
Conducting a Read-Aloud
 Be “performance oriented”; read with expression.
 Include “rich, dialogic discussion.”
 Activate prior knowledge.
 Link the story to experiences of students.
 Elicit responses from students.
 Give direct, clear, and simple instruction in word
meanings before the read-aloud.
 Give a sentence context from the story in
advance.
 Discuss words before and after the story.
 Embed quick definitions while reading. (Biemiller)
 Do not display pictures while reading (Beck et al.)
Warning!
Spending too much time discussing
read-alouds may detract from valuable
reading practice.
– Stahl (1998).
A Closer Look at Definitions

golf
golf n.
1. a good walk spoiled
(Mark Twain)
2. a game in which a player using
special clubs attempts to sink
a ball with as few strokes as
possible into each of the 9 or
18 successive holes on a
course (Webster)
a game in which a player
using special clubs attempts
to sink a ball with as few
strokes as possible into each
of the 9 or 18 successive
holes on a course
class distinguishing features
a game in which a player
using special clubs attempts
to sink a ball with as few
strokes as possible into each
of the 9 or 18 successive
holes on a course
class distinguishing features
a game in which a player
using special clubs attempts
to sink a ball with as few
strokes as possible into each
of the 9 or 18 successive
holes on a course
class distinguishing features

Aristotle
Semantic Feature
Analysis
humans adult female

woman + +
man + o
girl o +
boy o o
games clubs ball o

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball o

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +
popinary
popinary

“a fry cook”
popinary

“a fry cook”

Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous


Words: Gathered from Numerous and Diverse Authoritative Sources
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + + +
cooks fries makes bakes
things salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker s + +
Characters Wise Adventurous

Frog

Toad

Curious George
Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a diagram
that shows how key terms are
related.
What’s so great about them?
What’s so great about them?
 They help kids “see” abstract content.
 There is little to “read.”
 They are easy to construct and discuss.
 Technical terms can be taught in clusters.
 They enhance recall and understanding.
 They have an impressive research base.
Shakespearean Tragedy
Act 1 Exposition
Act 2 Complication
Act 3 Climax
Act 4 Resolution
Act 5 Conclusion
Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion
Complication

Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion


Climax

Complication

Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion


Climax

Complication Resolution

Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion


Rising
Action Climax

Complication Resolution

Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion


Rising Falling
Action Climax Action

Complication Resolution

Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion


egg

adult larva

pupa
How to Find the Area of a Triangle

No Yes
Right
triangle?

Determine Multiply
height legs

Multiply Divide
by base by 2
Tree Diagrams
Musical Instruments
Musical Instruments

wind nonwind
Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind
Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind string percussion


Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind string percussion

trumpet clarinet violin drum


Venn Diagrams
Frog and Toad Curious George

No people

Animal Could
Characters happen
Animals
talk
Blue People

Tall People Thin People


Blue People

Tall People Thin People


Blue People

Tall People Thin People


drugs
stimulants
depressants
alcohol
barbituates
caffeine
dexadrine
drugs
stimulants depressants

caffeine alcohol
dexadrine barbituates
drugs
stimulants depressants

caffeine dexadrine alcohol barbituates


antennae leg
thorax
wing

abdomen

Labeled Picture
Sociograms
HH

H H H

P P P P P P P P P
James Sara Elliott Anna
Roosevelt Delano Roosevelt Hall
(1828-1900) (1855-1941) (1860?-94) (1863-92)

Franklin Anna
Delano Eleanor
Roosevelt Roosevelt
(1882-1945) (1884-1962)

Anna James Elliott FDR, Jr. John


b. 1906 b. 1907 b. 1910 b. 1914 b. 1916
List-Group-Label

Hilda Taba
List
Students brainstorm all the words they
can recall at the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group
the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each
group they form.
List
Students brainstorm all the words they
can recall at the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group
the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each
group they form.
List
Students brainstorm all the words they
can recall at the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group
the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each
group they form.
no legs garter
boa
venom
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
no legs garter
boa
venom
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
Kinds of Snakes
garter
no legs garter boa
boa copperhead
venom cobra
cobra coral
fang Things Snakes Might Have
scales rattle
coral scales
tail fang
rattle no legs
copperhead venom
trees tail
holes
ground Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground
Kinds of Snakes
garter
no legs garter boa
boa copperhead
venom cobra
cobra coral
fang Things Snakes Might Have
scales rattle
coral scales
tail fang
rattle no legs
copperhead venom
trees tail
holes
ground Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground
Semantic Maps

(Word Webs)
Brainstorming
Students offer ideas related to a topic.
Mapping
Teacher and students form categories
and map the words into a diagram.
Reading
Students read a nonfiction selection.
Completing the Map
Teacher and students revisit the map
and together refine and expand it.
Kinds of Snakes
garter
no legs garter boa
boa copperhead
venom cobra
cobra coral
fang Things Snakes Might Have
scales rattle
coral scales
tail fang
rattle no legs
copperhead venom
trees tail
holes
ground Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground
rattle no legs
scales venom
fang tail
Things Snakes
Might Have

Snakes

garter
Kinds Where
boa
trees
copperhead
holes
cobra
ground
coral
Semantic maps have the
advantage of mirroring how
words are stored in the lexicon.
animal
mammal

“meow”
dog cat c-a-t
4 legs /kat/

pet
lion
Word Lines
hot cold
hot tepid cold
hot tepid cold

sweltering
hot tepid cold

sweltering chilly
hot tepid cold

sweltering chilly
Word Sorts
Open Sort
Categories are not given.

thorax pupa
abdomen antennae
wing larva
adult head
egg leg
Closed Sort
Parts Stages
Closed Sort
Parts Stages
thorax pupa
abdomen egg
wing larva
head adult
leg
antennae
Possible Sentences
1. Present a list of 8-12 words the
students will encounter in the new
text.
2. Add a few familiar terms.
3. Ask for sentences containing at
least two of the words.
4. Teach the text.
5. Return to the sentences.
6. Together decide whether they are
correct or can be edited to make
them so.
lexicon
syntactic clue
distributed practice
popinary
word
definition
*eponym
*toponym
*portmanteau
Some Research-Based Techniques
 Read-Alouds
 Semantic Feature Analysis
 Graphic Organizers
 List-Group-Label
 Semantic Maps (word webs)
 Web Trees
 Word Lines
 Word Sorts
 Possible Sentences
What do all of these techniques
(except one) have in
common?

1. They involve clusters of related


words.

2. They encourage children to


categorize.
What’s the exception?
Huckleberry Finn

fan-tods
yallerboys
mudcat
Illinois

Missouri

Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas

Mississippi

Louisiana
Hannibal
Illinois

Missouri

Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas

Mississippi

Louisiana
Hannibal
Illinois

Missouri

Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas

Mississippi

Louisiana
More Suggestions
Echo student talk, using
richer vocabulary.
Wonderful. I hope
I wrote this. you told me exactly
what you saw on
your trip to the zoo.
“Sprinkle” your
classroom with
vocabulary.
Beck & McKeown (2004)
Talk around
words.
Stahl & Stahl (2004)
Be a Word Wizard!
wary scowl ridiculous fortunate
Tom  
Sue  
Ed  
Juan  
Maria 
Lakesha  
Paul    
Jack  

– Beck & McKeown (2004)


Ask “silly questions.”
– Beck & McKeown (2004)

Would a fortunate person scowl?


Encourage word play

(including teachers!)
Words Named for People
(eponyms)
• einsteinium • silhouette
• teddy bear • sousaphone
• boycott • zinnia
• pasteurize • sideburns
• watt • shrapnel
• decibel • magnolia
• saxophone • hooligan
• braille • gardenia
Words Named for Places
(toponyms)
• bikini • ottoman
• tuxedo • bayonet
• badminton • cologne
• hamburger • frankfurter
• californium • magenta
• uranium • marathon
• plutonium • tangerine
• damask • manila
Words with Unusual Stories
• bazooka • googol
• gorilla
• bleachers
• jeep
• blurb • jumbo
• cowlick • sandwich
• crowbar • Pacific
• serendipity
• Dixie
• tank
• gas
• goatee
Blends (Portmanteaus)
• beefalo • jack rabbit
• bit • liger
• brunch • lox
• caplet • modem
• cockapoo • moped
• electrocute • motel
• guestimate • sitcom
• infomercial • skort
More Blends . . .
• slurb • telethon
• smog • tiglon
• snazzy • transister
• splatter • twiddle
• spork (why not • zap
foon?) • zedonk
• squiggle
• tangelo
Acronyms
• scuba
• radar
• sonar
• laser
• snafu
• fubar
Mnemonics

principle
rule
principal
pal
Connotations

What’s the difference between a fiddle


and a violin?
What can we do increase
children’s vocabularies?
1. Make vocabulary a school-wide goal

 Amend your plan.


 Establish instructional goals.
 Raise consciousness.
 Communicate expectations.
2. Establish teacher study groups

 Organize groups by grade level.


 Provide time for discussion.
 Reward participation.
 Encourage administrator participation.
 Select resource books.
3. Consider supplemental and
intervention programs

 Tie their use to assessments.


 Establish guidelines for use.
 Locate product reviews.
“In the long run, effective intervention
will involve extended vocabulary work
as a normal part the curriculum. (p.
34)

Andy
Biemiller

Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann &
E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-
40). New York: Guilford.
Suggested References
Baumann, J.F., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary
instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S.R., & Johnston, F.
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