TOYOTA UK

Basic
Electricity
Mike Wheeler
TOYOTA MOTOR MANUFACTURING (UK) LTD
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TOYOTA MOTOR MANUFACTURING (UK) LTD
 Contents
Chapter Page

1. General Legal Requirements 2

2. Regulation Descriptions 4

3. Matter, Atoms and Electrons 10

4. Electrical Energy 18

5. Electrical Current 19

6. Resistance 20

7. Ohm’s Law 22

8. Effects of an Electric Current 23

Legal Requirements

Background

The legislation that applies to safety in electricity came from special regulations of
the Factories Act (1908 & 1944). These regulations were drafted at a time when
electricity was new and technology fairly low. Also, these regulations had no
‘detailed’ safety requirements, which applied to electrical work activity.

In 1974, the ‘Health and Safety at Work Act’ (HSWA) came into force, which
encompassed an additional 16 million people under the protection of safety at work
legislation. The HSWA did not however give specific requirements for electrical
hazards.

Due to the changes in technology, working practices, equipment and the lack of
protection in existing legislation, the time had come to review, revise or replace the
regulations.

The electricity at work regulations came into force on the 1st April 1990 after over 9
years of development and consultation. The purpose of the regulations is to require
precautions to be taken against the risk of death or personal injury from electricity
in work activities.
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989

These regulations are concerned with:

The prevention of danger from electric shock, burns,
explosion, arcing or fire initiated by electrical energy.
They do not cover any consequential dangers of injury
caused by machine behaviour following a control
malfunction.
The regulations apply wherever the HSWA applies and
wherever electricity can be encountered. They apply to all
persons at work and are part of the criminal law
A breach of the regulations can also lead to a civil action
Scope

The regulations were made under section 15 of the HSWA

1974. This act imposes duties principally on employers, the
self-employed and on employees including certain classes of
trainees.
Duties imposed under the HSWA 1974 include:

EMPLOYERS:

The provision and maintenance of plant and systems of

work that are so far as reasonably practicable, safe and
without risk to health.

The provision of such information, instruction training and

supervision as is necessary to ensure so far as reasonably
practicable the health and safety at work of their members.
Electricity at Work Regulations it also states that:

It shall be the duty of every employer and self

employed person to comply with the provisions of
these Regulations in so far as they relate to matters,
which are within their control - referred to as DUTY
HOLDERS
So far as reasonably practicable has the following meaning:

Assessment of the magnitude of the risks of a particular work activity

and the costs involved regarding physical difficulty, time, trouble and
expense, which would be involved in taking steps to eliminate or
minimise those risks.

If for example, the risks to health and safety of a particular process are
very low, and the cost or technical difficulties of taking certain steps to
prevent those risks are very high, it might not be reasonably
practicable to take those steps

The greater the degree of risk, the less weight can be given to the cost
of measures needed to prevent the risk
When somebody is prosecuted for failing to comply with a duty ‘so far
as reasonably practicable’, it is up to the accused to prove to the court
that they had done all that was reasonably practicable
EMPLOYEES:

It is a duty on every employee while at work:

To take reasonable care for the Health and Safety of

themselves and others...

To co-operate with their employer or any person so far is

necessary to enable statutory duties imposed to be
performed or complied with

Not to intentionally or recklessly interfere with or misuse

anything provided in the interest of Health, Safety or
Welfare...
Electricity at Work Regulations it also states that:

It shall be the duty of every employee while at work:

To comply with the provisions of these regulations in so far

as they relate to matters, which are within their control.

There are also duties imposed upon designers,

manufacturers and installers of any article for use at work
18th Edition IEE Wiring Regulations

•The IEE wiring regulations are non-statutory regulations.

They relate principally to the design, selection, erection,
inspection and testing of electrical installations whether
permanent or temporary

•They are treated as a ‘code of practice’ which are widely

recognised and accepted in the UK and compliance with
them is likely to achieve compliance with the relevant
aspects of the 1989 regulations, which are mandatory

•The IEE wiring regulations only apply to installations

operating up to 1000 Volts A.C.

•The electricity at work regulations 1989 apply to all voltage

ranges
Regulation Descriptions

Regulation 1
Citation and commencement:
These Regulations may be cited as the ‘Electricity at Work
Regulations 1989’ and shall come into force on 1st April
1990
Regulation 2
This is important for us to understand because it concerns
the definitions used under the regulations
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Includes anything used, intended to be used or installed

for use, to generate, provide, transmit, transform, rectify,
convert, conduct, distribute, control, store, measure or
use electrical energy

From this definition, everything from a battery hand lamp

to an overhead power line is electrical equipment. This
emphasises that there are no voltage limits

The reasons for this is because the regulations are

concerned with explosion risks which could be caused by
very low levels of energy igniting flammable gasses, even
though there may be no risk of shock or burn
CONDUCTORS

Any material which is capable of conducting electricity

This definition includes all metals and other conducting
materials.

It is not limited to current carrying conductors but to other

conductors such as salt water, ionised gases and
conducting particles.
CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS

Those conductors whose normal function is to carry load

current or be energised
DANGER

Danger means risk of injury

The regulations make requirements to ‘prevent injury’ or
to ‘prevent danger’. There is a distinction between the two
in order to accommodate circumstances when persons
must work on or near to live equipment.

In these circumstances, there will be a ‘danger’ present

and impossible to prevent. Injury however must be
prevented at all costs
INJURY

Injury means death or injury to persons from:

• Electric Shock
• Electric Burn
• Fires of Electrical Origin
• Electrical Arcing
• Explosions Initiated or Caused by Electricity
LIVE

Live means that the equipment is at a voltage by being

connected to a source of electricity (As in normal use)
CHARGED

Charged means that the item in question has acquired a

charge either because it is LIVE or because it has become
charged by other means such as static or induction
charging.

It also relates to items which may have retained or

regained a charge due to CAPACITANCE effects even
though it has been disconnected from the system
DEAD

Dead means NOT electrically live or charged

DISCONNECTED

Disconnected means that electrical equipment or part of

a system is not connected to any source of electrical
energy
ISOLATED

Isolated means that electrical equipment or part of a

system has been disconnected and separated by a safe
distance (known as an isolating gap) from all sources of
electrical energy in such a way that the disconnection is
secure and cannot be re-energised accidentally or
inadvertently
Regulation 3

States which persons the regulations apply to.

This has already been discussed earlier under duties

Regulation 4

Is what is known as the ‘general’ regulation which requires

that all electrical systems to be constructed and
maintained, and all work carried out on or near a system,
so that danger is prevented as far as reasonably practical
Regulation 4.1 - system construction

This includes the design of a system as well as its

construction, taking into account the correct selection of
equipment that makes up the system
Regulation 4.2 - system maintenance

Regular inspection and testing is necessary for all

installations and should also be applied to all equipment
connected to that installation.

Detailed records of maintenance activity for systems should

be kept including test results, for the whole working life.
Without effective monitoring, duty holders cannot be
certain that the requirement for maintenance has been
complied with
Regulation 4.3 - work activities
All work activities carried out either directly or indirectly
associated with an electrical system should be carried out in
a way that does not give rise to danger so far as reasonably
practicable
With work of an electrical nature, it is preferable that the
conductors are made dead before the work commences. In
such cases, the equipment should be isolated and secured
by locking off. The conductors should be proved dead at the
point of work before the work is carried out. When a test
instrument is used, it should always be proved against a
known good voltage before and after use

Regulations 12 to 16 deals with work activities in more

detail
Regulation 4.4 - protective equipment

Any equipment provided for the purpose of protecting

persons at work on or near to electrical equipment shall be
suitable for the use for which it is provided, be maintained
in a condition suitable for that use and be properly used
Protective equipment can mean many things but typically
includes special tools, protective clothing and insulating
screening materials

THE REQUIREMENT IS ABSOLUTE

And cannot be altered or modified
Regulation 5

No electrical equipment shall be put into use where its

strength and capability may be exceeded in such a way
that may give rise to danger
Regulation 6

Concerns the user and specifier of equipment and the

environment in which it is being used.

Where the possibility of adverse or hazardous

environments exist, the equipment should be of such
construction or as necessary protected as to prevent
danger arising so far as reasonably practicable
Regulation 7

The insulation material of conductors must be appropriate

for the voltage of the system and that other precautions
should be taken in respect of them

Such precautions may include:

• Placing out of reach

• safe enclosures, clearances
• Safe working practices, instruction, warning notices
• The need to consider the safety of the general public
Regulation 8

Precautions should be taken to prevent danger arising

when any conductor (other than a circuit conductor)
becomes unforeseeably charged as a result of either the
use of the system, or a fault of the system

Techniques for the precautions to be met include:

• Earthing
• Double insulation
• Equipotential bonding
• Earth free environments
• Use of safe voltages
Regulation 9

If a circuit conductor is connected to earth or to any other

reference point, nothing should be done which might
reasonably give rise to danger by breaking the electrical
continuity or by placing high impedance in the conductor
Regulation 10

Is concerned with joints and connections used in a system,

where they must be mechanically and electrically suitable
for use so preventing danger

These include:
• Terminals, plugs and sockets
• Portable equipment
Regulation 11

Every part of a system shall be protected from excessive

current so as to prevent danger.

Methods used will be fuses and circuit breakers, which will

guard against overload, short circuit and earth fault current
This regulation is absolute although regulation 29 - defence
- can be used. If injury does occur, the defence will have to
show good design and maintenance records
Regulation 12

Refers to a means for cutting off the electricity energy

supply to any electrical equipment and the isolation of any
equipment so as to prevent danger

There is a need for:

• Positive air gap
• Identification of position
• Prevention of unauthorised operation
• Accessible location
• Clearly marked and labelled
Regulation 13

Adequate precautions must be taken to prevent electrical

equipment, which has been made dead in order to prevent
danger whilst performing work, from becoming electrically
charged during that work:
• Locking off
• Proving test equipment
• Permits to work
The regulation is absolute but subject to regulation 29
Regulation 14

This involves the activity of work on or near live

conductors. This work is not confined to electrical work
but includes any work activity
a) It is unreasonable in all circumstances for it to be dead.

It’s always preferable from the point of view of safety that

work on or near electrical equipment should be carried out
when that equipment is dead, as defined in regulation 13. This
regulation recognises however, that there are circumstances
in which making the equipment dead would be unreasonable,
taking into account all the relevant factors
Such circumstances include:

• Checking or repairing busy railway lines where it would

be costly and disruptive to isolate the live conductors
• Live cable jointing which is carried out by
EMEB/NORWEB
• Work on telephone network connections
Factors to consider in order to justify working live include:
• When testing for voltage presence
• When making the conductors dead creates other
hazards
• When the level of the risks involved in working live and
the effectiveness of the precautions available set against
economic need to perform that work
(b) It is reasonable in all the circumstances for the person to
be at work on or near the conductor when it is live.

If it would be reasonable for the work to be carried out at a

safe distance from the conductors then it would be
prohibited for that work to be carried out near the
conductors.
If persons whose presence near to the conductors is not
necessary, they should not be present.
(c) Suitable precautions (including where necessary the
provision of suitable protective equipment) are taken to
prevent injury

The precautions necessary to comply with this regulation

needs to be commensurate with the risk
Suitable precautions should include as appropriate:

(a) The use of people who are properly trained and competent to
work on live equipment safely - Regulation 16
(b) The provision of adequate information to the person carrying out
the work about the conductors involved, the associated electrical
system and the foreseeable risks
(c) The use of suitable tools, including insulated tools, equipment and
protective clothing - Regulation 4(4)
(d) The use of suitable insulated barriers or screens - Regulation 4
(e) The use of suitable instruments and test probes
(f) Accompaniment by another person or persons if the presence of
such person or persons could contribute significantly to ensuring that
injury is prevented
(g) The restriction of routine live test work (product testing) to specific
areas and the use of special precautions within those areas such as
isolated power supplies, non-conducting locations etc
(h) Effective control of any area where there is danger from live
conductors
Regulation 15

Adequate working space, lighting and means of access shall

be provided at all electrical equipment on which or near
which work is being done in circumstances, which may give
rise to danger
Regulation 16

Is concerned with competent persons

No person shall be engaged in any work activity where

technical knowledge or experience is necessary to prevent
danger or, where appropriate, injury, unless they posses
such knowledge or experience, or is under such a degree of
supervision as may be appropriate for the nature of the
work
The object of this regulation is to ensure that persons are not placed
at risk due to the lack of skills on the part of themselves or others in
dealing with electrical equipment

(a) Adequate knowledge of electricity

(b) Adequate experience of electrical work

(c) Adequate understanding of the system to be worked upon and

practical experience of that class of system

(d) Understanding of the hazards, which may arise during the work
and the precautions, which need to be taken

(e) Ability to recognise at all times whether it is safe for work to

continue
The regulation recognises that in many circumstances,
persons will require to be supervised to some degree,
where their technical knowledge or experience is not
sufficient to ensure that they can otherwise undertake the
work safely. In this context, supervision does not
necessarily require continual attendance at the work site,
but the degree of supervision and the manner in which it is
exercised is for the duty holders to arrange to ensure that
danger or injury is prevented
Regulations 17 to 28 inclusively apply only
to mines and therefore do not concern us
Regulation 29

Applies to the regulations where defence is

available. This only applies in criminal proceedings,
where a duty holder is provided with the defence to
prove that he took all reasonable steps and
exercised all due diligence to avoid committing an
offence
Matter, Atoms and Electrons

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space

and has mass. It can be found in one of three states:
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gaseous
Matter
This can be reduced to its basic parts:
As an example:
If a droplet of water is split in half, then half again and this
process was continued long enough, you could get to the
smallest particles of water possible, this would have
obtained a water MOLECULE

If the water molecules is split even further, it could no

longer be referred to as water because it would reveal that
the molecule was made up of ATOMS

Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_lNF3_30lUE ATOMS VIDEO
A water molecule consists of three atoms in total, one of
oxygen and two of hydrogen, commonly referred to as H2O
Atoms

All ATOMS consist of two main component parts, a central

NUCLEUS surrounded by orbiting ELECTRONS.
The Electrons revolve round the Nucleus in a 3 dimensional
ORBIT (or SHELL) very similar to the sun surrounded by
planets.

The Nucleus in atoms consists of two sub-atomic particles

called PROTONS and NEUTRONS.
• PROTONS have one unit of POSITIVE electrical charge
• NEUTRONS have NO electrical charge
The electrons orbiting this nucleus are also known as sub
atomic particles and each one has one unit of NEGATIVE
electrical charge.

The number of electrons orbiting the nucleus determines

the property of the atom.

Consider a HYDROGEN Atom

• The simplest atom that exists is HYDROGEN, which has
only one electron
Since UNLIKE charges ATTRACT (and LIKE charges REPEL)
then the positive Proton in the Nucleus of the Hydrogen
Atom attracts around it a negative electron.
Diagram of a Hydrogen Atom

As the proton is Positively Charged and the Electron is

Negatively Charged then the atom overall is NEUTRAL and
has NO charge
Now consider a HELIUM Atom
This has Two Protons in the nucleus and so will attract Two
orbiting electrons. These can go into the same orbit.

There are NEUTRONS in the nucleus and they will add

weight to the atom and act as ‘glue’ to stick the protons
together but since they are neutral they do not play any part
in Electricity and for our purpose, they can be ignored.
Now consider a LITHIUM Atom. This is the next in the
series with THREE Protons in the nucleus

The Third electron now has to orbit in a second shell,

further out from the nucleus. This is because the shells can
only hold a certain number of electrons in each one before
they become full.

This process continues, building up extra protons in the

nucleus (and neutrons which play no part)
Consider the sixth in the series, which is CARBON

• Again the Carbon atom is neutral

The Shells are given a letter and each letter has a number (n):
K = 1, L = 2, M = 3, N = 4, O = 5, P = 6, Q = 7
The Maximum Number of electrons in each shell has been found to be = 2n2
K = 2, L = 8, M = 18, N = 32, O = 50, P = 72, Q = 98
The electrons in the shell closest to the nucleus have the
strongest attraction and the electrons in the furthermost
shell the weakest attraction.
The outermost shell is known as the VALENCE SHELL

The process of proton gain in the nucleus and electron gain

continues
When completed, the progression can be put onto a chart
known as THE PERIODIC TABLE, which is used to determine
the chemical properties of ELEMENTS.

At rest, an atom is referred to as being electrically neutral;

that is, there are the same number of protons and electrons
Solids and Liquids

One way that Atoms can bond together to form Solid matter is to
form what is known as IONIC BONDS.

If an Atom looses an Electron then the Atom becomes POSITIVELY

charged, or conversely, if an Atom gains an Electron it becomes
NEGATIVELY charged.
Any charged Atom is known as an ION

Another way that atoms bond together to form solids is by what is

known as METALLIC BONDING
Atoms of, say, Copper bond to form a solid metal by the Electrons in the outer shell
wandering from atom to atom, and this is important when considering if the
materials will conduct electricity or not.

A Third way of Atoms bonding together is by what are known as CO –VALENT

BONDS

CARBON, GERMANIUM and SILICON use this method to form solids

If you look at the outer (valence) shell of these materials you will see they all have 4
valence electrons, so they all can be represented by similar diagrams.

When Silicon or Germanium atoms form a solid they effectively share

all their 4 valence electrons with 4 adjacent atoms, so each atom has
effectively 8 in their outer shell. This sharing of electrons is known as
CO –Valent BONDING
These materials are important in Electronics
Crystal Structure
The bonding of atoms in solid matter produces
structures, which are known as CRYSTALS and can
take different shapes for different materials.
•CARBON under normal conditions often takes up the
structure shown
Given enough heat and pressure the atoms of CARBON can
be rearranged to form the structure below
Other materials form many other shapes of crystals as
shown below:
Conduction in Metals (Copper)

Metals are giant crystalline substances whose atoms ore packed in

regular patterns which form CUBES
The outer electrons of the metal atoms are released and are FREE to
wander from atom to atom.
This gives an ordered grid of POSITIVE IONS (Copper atoms that have
lost an electron) held together by a ‘sea’ of electrons, which are not
firmly held by any particular atom, but are free to form a network of
mobile electrons.
Copper has one electron in its valence shell and this electron is only
very loosely held to its atom when in the crystal of copper.
These valence electrons are known as ‘free ‘electrons and it is these
‘free’ electrons that make metals good conductors of electricity.
The protons are too heavy to move and it is the electrons, which freely
move from atom to atom
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-j1e9NmMO38 CONDUCTION VIDEO
The free negatively charged electrons, like all negative
electrical charges, are attracted by positive charges.
An Electric battery or cell is a chemical unit has two
terminals. One of these has a surplus of electrons and is
NEGATIVELY CHARGED (-ve), and the other has a surplus
of positively charged IONS (+ve).

When a copper conductor is connected across the

terminals, the ‘free’ electrons in the conductor are
attracted to the positive terminal of the cell. This creates
an electron flow in the conductor from negative to
positive.

Each electron moves a very short distance from atom to

atom and this process is repeated throughout the length
of the conductor.
• The greater the number of electrons that can be made to
move, the better are the conductive properties of that
material
• Copper is one of the widest known conductors although it
is not the best
• Silver is the best conductor of electricity, followed by
copper, then gold then aluminium
• Silver is used in small quantities where good conductivity
is required such as electrical contacts
• Copper is used more often than silver due to cost and is
used in cable, bus bars, tubes and sheets
• Aluminium is used where weight is a major consideration
such as overhead power lines

Gold is used where oxidisation or corrosion is a major

consideration such as automobile relay contacts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gvJzrjwjds WHAT ARE AMPS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJb0r8dHzAo AMPERE
Insulators

• Atoms that have full outer shells do not have ‘free’

electrons, their electrons are tightly bound to the
nucleus and so it is very difficult to make the electrons
move and so carry a current.
• Materials which do not carry an electric current easily
are called INSULATORS.
• There are NO ELEMENTS that are useable as insulators
but by making molecules of certain elements
combinations, all the free electrons are used in
bonding with one another and so these materials
become good insulators.
• The plastics PVC and PVC are two good examples
that are used as cable insulation
Summary

• Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass

• An Element is a substance, which cannot be reduced to a simpler
substance by chemical means
• A Molecule is the chemical combination of two or more atoms. It is the
smallest particle that has all the characteristics of the original substance
• An Atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element, such as the copper atom. It is made up of
electrons, protons and neutrons. The number and arrangement of these
subatomic particles determines the type of element
• An Electron is a subatomic particle having a negative charge of electricity
• A Proton is a subatomic particle having a positive charge of electricity
• A Neutron is a subatomic particle that has no electrical charge
• An ION is a charged atom, which as either lost or gained electrons
• Conductors and Insulators are materials that are categorised according to
the number of free electrons in their atoms
• Conductors have the largest number of free electrons
• Insulators have the least number of free electrons
 Electrical Energy

As previously discussed, a material whose atoms have

either lost or gained electrons are known as IONS and have
a positive or negative electrical charge. This charge
constitutes ELECTRICAL ENERGY

The amount of energy depends upon the charge, which in

turn depends upon how many electrons have been lost or
gained

The extent to which an object is charged from its neutral

state is termed its POTENTIAL and can be measured by
comparing it to the general mass of earth, which is neutral
Volt (Symbol V)

• The unit of potential

• Positive charge has a positive potential (+ve)
• Negative charge has a negative potential (-ve)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBt-kxYfync WHAT ARE VOLTS

Potential Difference (P.D.)

• If two objects are charged to different potentials, a p.d.

exists between them
• This difference, like the difference between a single
charge and earth, is measured in volts
• When objects having a p.d. between them are
connected by a conductor, conventional current will flow
from the object of high potential to the object of low
potential.
• Each coulomb of charge moving through a p.d. of one
volt will produce/ require 1 joule of energy
• In general:
Electromotive Force (E.M.F)

This is a force, which causes energy to flow through a circuit

and is typically referred to as a voltage source
There are 6 methods of producing this emf:
1. FRICTION (Static Electricity)
• Voltage produced by rubbing certain materials together

2. PRESSURE (Piezoelectric)
• Voltage produced by squeezing crystals of certain
substances

3. HEAT (Thermoelectric)
• Voltage produced by heating the joint (junction) where
two unlike metals are joined (THERMOCOUPLE)
4. LIGHT (Photoelectric)
• Voltage produced by light striking photosensitive
substances

5. CHEMICAL ACTION (Cells)

• Voltage produced by chemical reaction in a battery cell

6. MAGNETISM (Dynamos or Generators)

• Voltage produced in a conductor when it moves through
a magnetic field or a magnetic field moves through the
conductor
 Electrical Current

The law of charges states that:

• Like charges REPEL
• Unlike charges ATTRACT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l8JS8BbrVOg WHAT IS CURRENT

• Electrons will move around the circuit to the positive
plate of the cell:
• The action of any cell is such that for every electron
gained by the anode
• The cathode emits an electron in order to equalise the
charge
• This action produces a flow of electrons around a circuit,
which continues until a switch is switched
• This flow of electrons produces a flow of electric charge.
The charge on 1 electron is 1.602 x 10-19C.
• 1 Coulomb = 6.24 x 1018 Electrons
• We can measure the quantity of electricity flowing
around the electrical circuit by using an electrical flow
meter also placed in series with the wires
• This would give us Coulombs flowing / second
• Q / t = CURRENT and the flow meter is known as an
AMMETER
• Current flow:
• When electricity was first discovered, scientists believed
that in the wires existed an invisible electric fluid that, like
water, flowed from a positive pressure to a negative
pressure
• When it became known that electricity was due to the
flow of electrons, hundreds of years later, it was decided
to acknowledge both types of flow
• Current is the flow of electrons and they flow from the -ve
terminal to the +ve terminal this is ELECTRON current
flow
• Current flow is usually looked at as being from the +ve
terminal to the -ve terminal this is CONVENTIONAL
current flow
Summary

• Voltage, EMF and Potential Difference are terms to

identify the potential energy between two points
• A voltage source is a device, which is capable of
supplying and maintaining a source of electrons when it
is connected to a circuit
Summary (Con't)

•Methods of producing voltage are:

1.Friction (Static)
2.Pressure (Piezoelectric)
3.Heat (Thermoelectric)
4.Light (Photoelectric)
5.Chemical (Battery)
6.Magnetism (Generator)
Summary (Con't)

• An Anode is the positive terminal of a battery and acts as

an electron collector
• A Cathode is the negative terminal of a battery and acts
as a source of electrons
• The law of charges states that Like Charges Repel and
Unlike Charges Attract
• The flow of electrons around a circuit moves charge
(measured in Coulombs) around the circuit. There are
6.24 x 1018 Electrons in one Coulomb
• An electric current is the flow of coulombs around a
circuit per second
 Resistance
The opposition to the flow of electricity is called
RESISTANCE

• Resistance is a property of every material and is

dependent upon:
• Material type
• Material size
• Material temperature

• For most conductors:

• Decreasing the cross sectional area will increase the
resistance to current flow
• Decreasing the temperature will decrease the resistance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-PJcj1TCf_g RESISTANCE
Resistance to Current Flow

If a potential difference (Voltage) occurs across a conductor it

will cause electrons to move and hence a current to flow. There
will be some opposition to the flow of current in the material
and this may arise from different causes in different materials.

In copper, the inherent resistance of the current flow arises from

the vast number of electrons moving at random through the
crystal structure. These impede the general flow or drift of
electrons from negative to the positive by interacting with one
another.
If the temperature rises, random motion of the electrons is
increased and the inherent resistance of the copper rises. If the
temperature falls random, motion of the electrons is decreased
and the inherent resistance of the copper falls.
With carbon, the inherent resistance comes from the fact
that there are few free electrons there to begin with and
so there is not enough to carry a large current. If the
temperature rises, the covalent bonds holding the carbon
atoms together break so freeing more electrons to be able
to carry a current and so the inherent resistance falls. If
the temperature falls, more of the covalent bonds are
made so even fewer electrons are available to carry an
electric current and so the inherent resistance rises.

Copper is said to have a Positive Temperature Coefficient

and Carbon is said to have a Negative Temperature
Coefficient.
Factor Effecting Resistance

All materials offer some resistance of current flow even

copper and silver. Good conductors such as these offer
very little resistance under normal circumstances. There
are however, three factors that can change this:

1. The length of the conductor

The length of the conductor

The longer the conductor the further the current has to
flow so the resistance is greater
2. The temperature

The temperature
For metals such as copper and silver the higher the
temperature the greater the resistance i.e. they have
positive temperature coefficient. For carbon, however the
action is different and this has a negative temperature
coefficient
3. The cross sectional area of the conductor

The cross sectional area of the conductor

A thin conductor will have a greater resistance to current
flow than a thicker conductor. As most of the conductors
we use are round the cross sectional area can be found
from

where d is the diameter of the cable

Resistivity

To be able to compare the inherent resistance of different

materials a standard measure is used. This is the resistance
(in ohms) of a 1 metre cube of the material and is known as
the Resistivity of the material and given the symbol ρ (rho)
and is measured in Ω metres
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UyEpoWsBqbc RESISTIVITY PART 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUaaAx_kQtg RESISTIVITY PART 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XoI6QmQeAXo RESISTIVITY
For:
Copper ρ = 17.2 x 10-9 ΩM
Aluminium ρ = 28.4 x 10-9 ΩM
Nichrome ρ = 1110 x 10-9 ΩM
PVC ρ = 1 x 1012 ΩM
Glass ρ = 1 x 1010 ΩM
Silicon ρ = 2.3 x 103 ΩM
Germanium ρ = 0.43 ΩM

For any conductor its resistance in ohms becomes:

Where: ρ is the Resistivity of the material

l is the length of the conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor
 Ohm’s Law
• The relationship between Current, Resistance and Voltage was discovered in the early
1800’s by George Ohm (a German scientist), hence the relationship becoming known as
Ohm’s law
• It was discovered that if the resistance remained the same and the voltage was increased,
then the current increased by the same amount
Effects of an Electric Current

A current through a circuit will have 3 effects and will always

occur to a lesser or greater extent.
They are:
Heating effect

This is an effect of the resistance in a circuit, heat is

generated by electrons effectively bumping into one
another. This effect is required in a room heater or cooker,
but it is often a by-product of another effect and heat given
off by an electric motor is wasted energy.
Chemical effect

There are two main ways this effect can be seen. The first
effect is in batteries and cells where the use of chemicals
produces an emf which creates a current flow in a circuit or,
in the opposite sense, a current is used to replenish the
chemicals as in recharging the battery. The second effect is
in the electroplating industry. A metal deposit can be plated
a surface by passing a current through electrodes in an
electrolyte in a process known as electrolysis.
Magnetic effect

This is probably the most important of the 3 effects as it

has applications in electric motors and generators.
Whenever a conductor passes a current a magnetic effect
is produced. The direction of the current relates to the
direction of the magnetic field. When two current carrying
conductors are placed next to each other, they will either
repel or attract depending on the relative direction of the
currents.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh_aCAHThTQ HOW DOES A TRANSFORMER WORK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZInLPe_bezQ HOW ELECTRICITY WORKS ANIMATED
The Effects of an Electric Shock
The Effects of an Electric Shock
The Effects of an Electric Shock
The Effects of an Electric Shock
Greater than 200 mA KILLS

As little as 5 mA can kill in the right place i.e. the heart.

The primary effects of an electric current are:
Shock
Burning
Ventricular Defibrillation
The secondary effects are:
Injuries from falls
Injuries from being thrown
Precautions
Test circuit for safe isolation (Circuit Dead) before working
on it.
•Circuit protection

Mike Wheeler
At the end of this course you will
• Be able to demonstrate the correct selection of protective devices

• Explain the purpose of the operation of selected fuses and circuit

breakers

• Be able from exercises determine the size, type and effects on the
circuit of fitting various types of protective devices
Protective Devices

What is a protective device ?

What is the purpose of it ?

How important is it ?

How do I know that it is the correct

size and type

TOYOTA
 Protective Devices
Protective device is the name given to a wide variety
of electrical components, from the common fuse to
more complex devices such as circuit breakers.

Protective devices are installed to protect the

installation from short circuits and overloads.

They are not there to stop people getting an

electric shock, nor are they there in case anything
goes wrong, by making the fuse blow.
 Short Circuit
BS7671:2001 states that a short circuit is an over
current resulting from a fault of negligible impedance
between live conductors having a difference in
potential under normal operating conditions

L
O
A
D

N
 Overload
BS7671:2001 calls an overload, an over current in a
circuit which is electrically sound.
A circuit may be sound, however the load or appliance
connected to the circuit may demand more current
than has been allowed for in the circuit
If you tried to connect a fire which demands 20A, in a
circuit designed to carry 10A, it is not the circuits fault,
it is the person plugging in the fire
This is a problem in buildings such as university halls
of residence when all the students want to plug in
fridges, hair dryers, toasters, kettles etc, when all that
has been allocated is a bed side lamp
 Earth Loop Impedance
An Earth Loop Impedance is the path between the
phase conductor and the circuit protection
conductor of the circuit

It is a measurement taken in Ohms – Ω

The measurement is taken from the fault point

through the circuit back to the substation then
along the phase back
 Earth Loop Impedance
The earth loop is the circuit, which begins at the point
of the fault, passes through the circuit protective
conductor, then through the earth conductor then into
the mains and then back to the point of the fault.

It should have a low value of impedance. This can be

a problem on an a.c. network when we are wanting a
fuse to operate in a set time.
 Phase-earth Loop
The diagram shows the whole of the earthing system,
the protective conductor, the phase and neutral
conductors and the supply authorities earth and
supply cables. This is called the phase-earth loop.

It is easier to understand if it is drawn in terms of its

basic components which are a series of resistors.
To be able to work out the max Earth loop
impedance we first must know the equation to
use

Zs = Ze + R1 + R2 Ω

In this equation the max Zs is the overall path

Ze = the impedance of the cable either
underground or overhead
R1 = the impedance in the phase conductor
R2 = the impedance in the circuit protective
conductor
Each circuit as a pre-determined time that a
protective device will work under fault conditions
Any circuit that is deemed to be at a more dangerous
level i.e. a circuit that is connected via plug and
socket arrangement will be a 0.4 sec disconnection.
Other circuits that are not deemed to be at a level of
danger i.e. lighting circuits shall be of 5 sec
disconnection.
Table 41B1 – 41D p45 – 48 (B.S. 7671) show all the
various max Zs for all types of protective devices.
Another source is the on-site guide. These tables give
a variation due to these are the electricians guide and
that all correction factors have been taken into
account
The Earth Loop Impedance reading taken is
verified for compliance by either the B.S. 7671
or the on- site guide

By finding the type and size of the device used on

the circuit we are able to see whether the device
will not only work in a certain time but also the the
fault currents in the circuit are able to be carried
away in the given time
The testing of each circuit after any alteration or
repair as been carried out may not always be
possible so in some cases a R1 + R2 calculation
may be needed to see if the max Zs as been
reached, this is providing that all other relevant
information is available like the Ze at the
distribution board is known or a reading can be
taken.
 Test Instruments
Normally an Earth Loop Impedance Tester is used

These should be regularly checked and calibrated

and records kept of serial numbers and dates of
repairs etc.

An electrical contractor usually uses a socket outlet

of a known Zs to verify the instrument is in good
working order and accurate
Impedance is the term used instead of resistance
in a.c. work
Resistance is a d.c.term
Impedance is an a.c.term
They are both measured in Ohms (Ω)

Impedance is usually a higher figure than the d.c.

equivalent resistance value
This means that the current flowing in an a.c. circuit
is often smaller than its equivalent d.c.circuit
This can be a problem on an a.c. network when we
are wanting a fuse to operate in a set time
 Conductive Parts

In any installation there are two types of

conductive parts, particularly when we are
dealing with earthing

•Exposed conductive parts

•Extraneous conductive part
 Exposed Conductive Part
BS7671:2001 states an exposed conductive part is;
• A conductive part of equipment which can be
touched and which is not a live part but which may
become live under fault conditions.
We have to look for things in an installation that
under fault condition can become live.
This could be metal trunking, steel conduit, cable
tray, ladder racking, socket boxes etc.
Not everything that is metal is necessarily an
exposed conductive part. It must be capable of
becoming live.
If it is not part of a fault current circuit then it is not an
exposed conductive part.
 Extraneous Conductive Part
BS7671:2001 states an extraneous conductive
part is;
• A conductive part liable to produce a potential,
generally earth potential, and not part of the
electrical installation.

Generally if anything metal comes out of the

ground, assuming the ground is at earth potential,
then that metalwork is an extraneous conductive
part.

This could be steel girders, gas pipes, water pipes,

underground conduits etc.
 Definition of Terms
Before we look at individual protective devices we
should define some terms.
Current rating
This is the maximum current that a protective device
will carry indefinitely without the device operating or
being damaged.
Fusing current
This is the minimum current that will cause a
protective device to operate.
Fusing factor
This is the ratio of fusing current to current rating.
fusing current
fusing factor =
current rating
 B.S. 3036

A rewireable type of protective device that was

used since the inception of electrical circuitry in
both domestic and industrial wiring.
However this protective is no longer common due
to de-rating factors of the cable that must be used
in order to comply with current British Standards.
 Rewireable (semi-enclosed)
fuses – BS3036

The BS 3036 type of protective device are very

simple yet very effective. They are called rewireable
or semi-enclosed.
When a current flows in a circuit heat is given off. If
the current is lower than the fuse rating, then the fuse
can dissipate (get rid of) the heat into the
surrounding air. If the current is greater than the
rating, the fuse will be unable to dissipate the heat as
easily and the fuse wire will overheat. When the wire
reaches a set temperature it will melt.
This type of fuse is only good for currents up to 100A
and voltages up to 250V.
 B.S. 3036
Advantages Disadvantages

No Moving Parts Open to abuse

Inexpensive Fuse Oxidises with age

Easy to replace Poor discrimination

Easy to see if blown If fault still present can

cause injury
Low replacement cost Wrong Size fuse wire
used
 Cartridge Fuses BS1361/62
This is a very common fuse found in plug tops and
small control circuits. It has a number of
advantages and disadvantages.

The body of the fuse is usually made of glass with

the fuse element connected to the two end caps.
The fuse is sometimes filled with silica sand.
 B.S. 1361
Advantages Disadvantages

No Moving Parts Incorrect cartridge can be

used

Small physical size More expensive than

rewireable
Accurate current Metallic foil can be used
rating
Not liable to Unsuitable for high fault
deterioration currents
 HBC Cartridge Fuses BS88 Pt 2&6
This type of fuse is quite expensive and is commonly
used in industry.
HBC (Higher breaking Capacity) fuses have been
designed to take into account certain electrical
effects that occur when certain bits of machinery are
turned on

HBC fuses can differentiate between what is a ‘short-

term’ overload caused by the circuits normal way of
operating and a real fault.
It can also withstand very high fault currents
 B.S. 88

Advantages Disadvantages
 B.S. 60898

Advantages Disadvantages
 Circuit Breakers to BSEN60898

A circuit breaker has two means of tripping, magnetic and thermal.

In a circuit breakers normal steady state, the current

flows and neither the bi-metallic trip nor the magnetic
trips are effected. The latching mechanism is held in
place and the plunger is low not affecting the trip
mechanism.
B.S. 61009
 Short Circuit Operation of Circuit
Breakers
In a short circuit it is the magnetic part of the circuit that is effected.

In a short circuit there is a rapid increase in current.

The bi-metallic strip has little time to heat up. The
magnetic coil builds up a large magnetic field around
itself, moving the plunger upwards and another part
of the tripping mechanism down. This leads to a rapid
break in the circuit.
 Circuit Breakers to BSEN60898

A circuit breaker has two means of tripping, magnetic and thermal.

In a circuit breakers normal steady state, the current

flows and neither the bi-metallic trip nor the magnetic
trips are effected. The latching mechanism is held in
place and the plunger is low not affecting the trip
mechanism.
 Discrimination
Discrimination is the designing of the system in such
a way that only the minimum number of circuit are
affected by the operation of a protective device.
Regulation 533-01-06 demands that discrimination
is applied where necessary to prevent danger.
Even when it is not dangerous it is a good practice
to apply discrimination.

If a fault were to occur on circuit D we would want to have D operate

before B or A.
 Positioning of Protective Devices

Careful application of the right BS7671:2001 requirements are needed.

They should be positioned where:

• Reduction occurs in the size of cable
• Installation method changes
• The type of cable changes
• The environment conditions change
 Examples of where to place
protective devices

You do not need to change the fuse size if the

length of cable run has no branch circuit with it
 Rating of Devices
When it comes to choosing a protective device it is important to be
aware of its capabilities

The current rating of the device will tell us how much

current will indefinitely flow without causing the device
to operate
The energy let through class is a measure of how
much energy will pass through the device before it
operates
The type gives a choice depending on the nature of
the connected load
The breaking capacity is a measure of the total current
that a protective device can handle during a fault
 Electrical Safety

Topics covered in this presentation:

 Electric Shock
 Avoiding Electric Shock
 Dealing With Electric Shock
 Electric Shock

 Large number of potentially

dangerous systems in
everyday life.

 All equipment is safe when

used correctly.

 Public Supplies have

dangerously high voltages.
 Electric Shock

 Electricity can cause

human body severe
damage.

 Muscles used for

essential functions.

 Muscles work using small

electrical signals.
 Electric Shock

 High-voltage supply may

result in high currents in
body.

 The muscle operates

violently.
 Grounding
 Electrical systems
connected directly (or
indirectly) to ground.
 Shock current flows if
body is included in the
circuit between live supply
and ground - that is,
provide a path to ground
through which electrical
current can flow.
 The body is permanently
in contact with ground.
 Circuit completed with
connection to live supply.
 No-Let-Go Situation
 A shock from a high voltage will cause the hand to grip the
conductor.
 The shock current increases causing the hand to grip
tighter.

 Known as the No-Let-Go situation.

 Pain occurs with shock

current.
 Shock currents may be fatal if
applied through the chest.
 The lungs may empty of air.

 The heart may stop beating or

beat irregularly.
 Electrical Burns

 High voltage shocks can cause

burns.

 Burns are caused by the shock

current.

 The severity of the shock depends

on the current flowing through the
body, which depends on the
voltage driving it.

 Electrical burns are usually very

slow to heal.
 Avoiding Electric Shock

 NEVER work on a live high voltage circuit.

 Increase your resistance to ground.

 Make sure system is switched off.

 Keep one hand in a pocket.

 Use an isolation transformer.

 Use a residual current circuit breaker.

 Dealing With Electric Shock
 Clear the area round the casualty to ensure no-one else at risk.

 Isolate the casualty from supply

before touching them.
 Touching the casualty receiving the
shock, may result in you getting a
shock as well.

 Switch off at power outlet or remove

the plug.
 If power can’t be switched off separate
casualty from source.

 Stand on something dry.

 Use a wooden broom or plastic pole.
 Dealing With Electric Shock
 Having isolated the casualty from the supply,
check breathing and heartbeat - urgent action
required if either is absent.

 Call qualified first aider (if available)

- have them stay with the casualty whilst
(if possible) someone else calls/phones
for skilled medical assistance.

 Clear the area around the casualty.

 Keep casualty warm and as comfortable

as possible.

 Special training is required for first aid.

- always advisable, when working with electricity,
to have a knowledge of basic emergency first aid.
Transformer -Types &
Applications
Module 1
What are transformers?
• Transformers are electrical devices used to convert or "transform" AC
voltage from one level to another. (high to low or low to high)
• Input and output are AC
• They do this by the principle of electromagnetic induction
Transformer
Symbol of Transformer
Parts of a Transformer
A transformer consists of 3 basic components
• Primary Coil or Primary Winding : It is an electrical wire wrapped
around the core on the input side
• Secondary Coil or Secondary Winding: It is an electrical wire wrapped
around the core on the output side
• Core : A ferromagnetic material that can conduct a magnetic field
through it. Example: Iron
Transformer Structure
Transformer Operation
• An electrical transformer normally consists of a ferromagnetic core
and two coils called "windings".
• A transformer uses the principle of mutual inductance to create an AC
voltage in the secondary coil from the alternating electric current
flowing through the primary coil.
• The voltage induced in the secondary can be used to drive a load.
What is Mutual Inductance?
• The principle of mutual inductance says that when two electrical coils
are placed near to each other, AC electrical current flowing in one coil
induces an AC voltage in the other coil.
• This is because current in the first coil creates a magnetic field around
the first coil which in turn induces a voltage in second coil
Mutual Inductance
• The transformer improves the efficiency of the transfer of energy
from one coil to another by using a core to concentrate the magnetic
field.
• The primary coil creates a magnetic field that is concentrated by the
core and induces a voltage in the secondary coil
Transformer Operation
Turns Ratio
• The voltage at the secondary coil can be different from the voltage at
the primary. This happens when the number of turns of the coil in
primary and secondary are not the same
• The Turns Ratio (TR) is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary
coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil
Formulas
•TR= Vp / Vs
•Also TR= Np /Ns
•So we can say
Vp / Vs = Np /Ns
Also Vp/Vs=Is /Ip
Transformer Voltages & Currents
Problems
1. A transformer has a primary voltage of 230v and turns ratio of 5:1.
Calculate the secondary voltage
2. A transformer has 200 turns in the primary, 50 turns in the
secondary, and 120 volts applied to the primary (Vp). What is the
voltage across the secondary (V s)?
More Problems….
1. There are 400 turns of wire in an iron-core coil. If this coil is to be
used as the primary of a transformer, how many turns must be
wound on the coil to form the secondary winding of the
transformer to have a secondary voltage of one volt if the primary
voltage is five volts?
2. A 12 volts transformer has 20 turns in the primary, 5 turns in the
secondary. What is the voltage across the primary side (VP)?
Lab Activity 2

•Complete Pages 19 -22 of Module 1

Input Power and Output Power of a
Transformer
• Under ideal conditions input power and output power
should be the same. But there is power loss between
the primary and secondary and so practically they are
not exactly equal.
• So, Pin = Pout + Ploss
Transformer Efficiency
• The power loss is converted to heat . The heat
produced can be found by calculating the transformer
efficiency.
Transformer Types

•Isolation Transformer
•Autotransformer
Isolation Transformer
• In isolation transformer, the primary and secondary
are physically isolated (no electrical connection)
Advantages of Isolation Transformer
• Voltage spikes that might occur on the primary are greatly reduced or
eliminated in the secondary
• If the primary is shorted somehow, any load connected to the
secondary is not damaged
• Example: In TV monitors to protect the picture tube from voltage
spikes in main power lines
Autotransformers
• An autotransformer uses only one coil for the primary
and secondary.
• It uses taps on the coil to produce the different ratios
and voltages.
The Control Transformer
• A control transformer is used to
reduce voltage from the main
power line to a lower voltage that
operates a machine’s electrical
control system.
The Control Transformer
• The most common type of control transformer has
two primary coils (H1H2 and H3H4) and one
secondary coil (X1X2). Note that the primary windings
are crossed
To get 120V at the secondary from 240 V at the
primary using a control transformer
It is actually a parallel connection of the
primary coils
To get 120V at the secondary from 480 V
at the primary using a control transformer
This is actually a series connection of the
primary coils
Problem 1
• Connect the primary coils in parallel and calculate the
secondary voltage if the primary voltage is 48 Volts
and the number of turns in each primary is 50 turns
and the secondary has 25 turns.
 Problem 2
• Connect the primary coils in series and calculate the
secondary voltage if the primary voltage is 48 Volts
and the number of turns in each primary is 50 turns
and the secondary has 25 turns.
Problem 3:Make connections in the transformer coils to produce a turns ratio of
1:1. Use both primary and secondary coils.
Problem 4:Make connections in the transformer coils to produce a turns ratio of 2:1.
Use both primary and secondary coils.
 Capacitance and Electric Fields Chapter 13
• Introduction
• Capacitors and Capacitance
• Alternating Voltages and Currents
• The Effect of a Capacitor’s Dimensions
• Electric Fields
• Capacitors in Series and Parallel
• Voltage and Current
• Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
• Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
• Circuit Symbols
Introduction 13.1

• We noted earlier that an electric current represents a

flow of charge
• A capacitor can store electric charge and can therefore
store electrical energy
• Capacitors are often used in association with
alternating currents and voltages
• They are a key component in almost all electronic
circuits
Capacitors and Capacitance 13.2

• Capacitors consist of two conducting surfaces

separated by an insulating layer called a dielectric
• A simple capacitor
circuit
• when switch is closed
electrons flow from top
plate into battery and
from battery onto
bottom plate
• charge produces an
electric field across the
capacitor and a voltage
across it
• For a given capacitor the stored charge q is directly proportional to
the voltage across it V
• The constant of proportionality is the capacitance C and thus

Q
C
V
• If the charge is measured in coulombs and the voltage in volts, then
the capacitance is in farads
• Example – see Example 13.1 in course text
A 10 F capacitor has 10 V across it. What quantity of charge is stored
in it?

From above Q
C
V
Q  CV
 10 5  10
 100 μC
Alternating Voltages and Currents
• A constant current cannot flow through a capacitor
• however, since the voltage across a capacitor is proportional
to the charge on it, an alternating voltage must correspond
to an alternating charge, and hence to current flowing into
and out of the capacitor
• this can give the
impression that an
alternating current
flows through the
capacitor
• A mechanical analogy may help to explain this
• consider a window - air cannot pass through it, but sound (which is a
fluctuation in air pressure) can
The Effect of a Capacitor’s Dimensions
• The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional
to its area A, and inversely proportional to the distance
between its plates d. Hence C  A/d
• the constant of proportionality is the permittivity  of the
dielectric
• the permittivity is normally expressed as the product of the
absolute permittivity 0 and the relative permittivity r of
the dielectric used
 A  0 r A
C 
d d
Electric Fields
• The charge on the capacitor produces an electric field
with an electric field strength E given by
E V
d

the units of E are volts/metre (V/m)

• All insulating materials have a maximum value for the field strength
that they can withstand
• the dielectric strength Em
• To produce maximum capacitance for a given size of capacitor we
want d to be as small as possible
• however, as d is decreased the electric field E is increased
• if E exceed Em the dielectric will break down
• there is therefore a compromise between physical size and breakdown
voltage
• The force between positive and negative charges is described in terms
of the electric flux linking them
• measured in coulombs (as for electric charge)
• a charge Q will produce a total flux of Q coulombs
• We also define the electric flux density D as the flux per unit area
• In a capacitor we can almost always ignore edge effects, and

DQ
A
• Combining the earlier equations it is relatively easy to show that

 D
E

• Thus the permittivity of the dielectric within a capacitor is equal to

the ratio of the electric flux density to the electric field strength.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
• Capacitors in parallel
• consider a voltage V applied
across two capacitors
• then the charge on each is
Q  VC Q  VC
1 1 2 2
• if the two capacitors are replaced with a single capacitor C
which has a similar effect as the pair, then
Charge stored on C  Q  Q
1 2
VC  VC  VC
1 2
C  C C
1 2
• Capacitors in series
• consider a voltage V applied
across two capacitors in series
• the only charge that can be
applied to the lower plate of C1
is that supplied by the upper plate V  V V
1 2
of C2. Therefore the charge on
each capacitor must be identical. Q QQ
C C C
Let this be Q, and therefore if a 1 2
single capacitor C has the same 1 1  1
effect as the pair, then C C C
1 2
Voltage and Current
• The voltage across a capacitor is directly related to the
charge on the capacitor
Q 1
V    Idt
C C

• Alternatively, since Q = CV we can see that

dQ dV
C
dt dt

and since dQ/dt is equal dto

V current, it follows that
I C
dt
• Consider the circuit shown here
• capacitor is initially discharged
• voltage across it will be zero
• switch is closed at t = 0
• VC is initially zero
• hence VR is initially V
• hence I is initially V/R
• as the capacitor charges:
• VC increases
• VR decreases
• hence I decreases
• we have exponential behaviour
• Time constant
• charging current is determined by R and the voltage across it
• increasing R will increase the time taken to charge C
• increasing C will also increase time taken to charge C
• time required to charge to a particular voltage is determined by the product
CR
• this product is the time constant  (greek tau)
• See Computer Simulation Exercises 13.1 and 13.2 in the course text
Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
• Consider the application of a
sinusoidal voltage to a capacitor
• from above I = C dV/dt
• current is directly proportional to
the differential of the voltage
• the differential of a sine wave is
a cosine wave
• the current is phase-shifted by
90 with respect to the voltage
• Since I = C dV/dt the magnitude of the current is related to the rate of
change of the voltage
• in sinusoidal voltages the rate of change is determined by the frequency
• hence capacitors are frequency dependent in their characteristics
• We will return to look at frequency dependence in later lectures.
Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
• To move a charge Q through a potential difference V
requires an amount of energy QV
• As we charge up a capacitor we repeatedly add small
amounts of charge Q by moving them through a
voltage equal to the voltage on the capacitor
• Since Q = CV, it follows that Q = CV, so the energy
needed E is given by
1
E   CV dV  CV 2
V
0 2
• Alternatively, since V = Q/C
2 2
1 1  Q  1 Q
E  CV 2  C   
2 2 C  2C

• Example – see Example 13.7 in the course text

Calculate the energy stored in a 10 F capacitor when
it is charged to 100 V.
From above:
1 2 1
E  CV   10  5  100 2  50 mJ
2 2
Circuit Symbols
Key Points
• A capacitor consists of two plates separated by a dielectric
• The charge stored on a capacitor is proportional to V
• A capacitor blocks DC but appears to pass AC
• The capacitance of several capacitors in parallel is equal to the
sum of their individual capacitances
• The capacitance of several capacitors in series is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances
• In AC circuits current leads voltage by 90 in a capacitor
• The energy stored in a capacitor is ½CV2 or ½Q2/C
inductors
 Magnetic fields
• A magnetic field may be represented by a mathematical
description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and
magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is
specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as
such it is a vector field
• Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and
the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles

Electromagnetism

Compasses reveal the direction of Magnetic field of an ideal

the local magnetic field. cylindrical magnet with its axis of
symmetry inside the image plane.
Magnetic fields
Magnetic fields
Magnetic fields
• The magnetic flux is measured in webers (Wb) and
the applied symbol is the capital Greek letter phi Φ
Flux density
Example
1. For the core determine the flux density B in teslas.

2. if the flux density is 1.2 T and the area is 0.25 in^2 , determine the
flux through the core.
However, converting 0.25 in.2 to metric units,
Inductors
• Inductors are coils of various dimensions designed to
introduce specified amounts of inductance into a circuit.
• The inductance of a coil varies directly with the magnetic
properties of the coil.
• Ferromagnetic materials, are frequently employed to
increase the inductance by increasing the flux linking the
coil.
• Inductance is measured in Henries (H)
• 1 Henry is the inductance level that will establish a
voltage of 1 volt across the coil
Inductors
• An inductor is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that stores energy in its magnetic field.
• An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor
wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic field.
• When the current flowing through an inductor changes,
creating a time-varying magnetic field inside the coil, a
voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction
• Inductors are one of the basic components used in
electronics where current and voltage change with time, due
to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating
currents.
Inductors

Inductor symbols
FARADAY’S LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
If a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field so that it cuts
magnetic lines of flux, a voltage will
be induced across the conductor
Equation for voltage induced across a
coil if a coil of N turns is placed in the
region of a changing flux
The greater the number of flux lines cut per
unit Time or the stronger the magnetic field
strength, the greater will be the induced
voltage across the conductor.
Increase the number of magnetic flux lines
by increasing the speed with which the
conductor passes through the field
Relative size of different types of inductors
Types of Inductors
• Inductors like Capacitor can be fixed or variable
Equivalent circuit for the inductor
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements
Typical areas of application
for inductive elements