Natural resources and Energy

PETROLEUM
• Comes from the Latin words “Petra” meaning rock and
“oleum” meaning oil. Thus, it is known as ROCK OIL.
• Naturally occurring complex hydrocarbons widely
distributed in sedimentary rocks of the Earth’s crust.
• Covers spectrum of solid, liquid and gaseous members of
hydrocarbon series:
Solid- Asphalt, Tar, Pitch, Bitumen, Gilsonite
Liquid- Crude Oil
Gaseous- Natural Gas
• Commercial deposits of crude oil and natural gas are always
found underground in the the water coated pore spaces of
sedimentary rocks.
• Fossil Fuel
• Known as “LIQUID GOLD” for its economic prospects.
 Composition of Petroleum and Natural Gas
• Carbon, Hydrogen are the essential components. Oxygen, Nitogen and Sulphur may or
may not be present as minor impourities.

• Two hydrocarbon series:

i. Paraffin/ Methane Series – Straight chain hydrocarbons with formula CnH2n+2.
ii. Napthalene Series- Alicyclic hydrocarbons with saturated carbon ring compounds.

• Distillates from Petroleum- Fractionation/ Fractional Distillation used to refine crude oil.
Order of distillation is as follows:
i. Gasoline and Naptha with benzene and other volatile oils- Temperature 25-150 degree C,
4-10 carbon atoms per molecule.
ii. Kerosene and illuminating Oils- Temperature 150-300 degree C, 11-13 carbon atoms per
molecule.
iii. Diesel and light gas oils- Temperature above 300 degree C, 14-18 carbon atoms per
molecule.
iv. Heavy Gas oils, Home heating oils- Temperature 300-350 degree C, 19-25 Carbon atoms
per molecule.
v. Lubricating oils, Light fuel oils- Temperature > 350 degree C, 26-40 Carbon atoms per
molecule.
vi. Residual and heavy fuel oils- More than 40 C atoms per molecule, at higher temperature.
 Natural Gas/ Fossil Gas- Naturally occuring gas of the
hydrocarbon series. Methane is the primary constituent.
Higher alkanes, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, hydrogen
sulphide or helium may be present.
Dry Gas- Gas composed entirely of methane.
Wet gas- Proportion of ethane and higher molecules exceed
some threshold value.

Mineral Gas- Gases given out during igneous activity.

GOR- Gas Oil Ratio- Volume of gas in reservoir with
respect to volume of oil.
 Kerogen and Catagenesis
Kerogen- Macro-molecular complex with a polymer-like
structure, fraction of sedimentary organic matter that does not
dissolve in organic solvents.

Classification (Tissot and Welle):

• Type I- Sapropelic, H/C ratio 1.3 to 1.7, O/C ratio <0.1,
kerogen in oil shales, oil with thermal maturation, enriched
in lipids.
• Type II- H/C ratio 1 to 1.5, O/C ratio 0.1 to 0.2, Sulphur rich,
common and richest source rock for oil.
• Type III- Humic, H/C ratio <1, O/C ratio > 0.2, generates
abundant CO2 and CH4.
 Conversion of Kerogen to Oil and Gas
I. Transformation of organic matter to kerogen at shallow depths, upto 1
Km below earths surface at 50 degree C.
II. Conversion of Kerogen to petroleum at 50-70 degree C, at 1-2 Km
depth of burial and long geological time.
III. Temperaturate range for thermal maturation is 80-130 degree C, at 3-4
Km depth of burial and geothermal gradient 25-30 degree C.
IV. Cracking- breaking of C-C covalent bonds in the organic molecules
with increasing temperature and depth of burial. Formation of
geomonomers- lighter hydrocarbons from long chain hydrocarbons of
kerogens. This cracking process continues until the accumulated
sedimentary rock exerts enough pressure for the temperature to reach
about 120 oC. The 60-120 oC temperature range is called the "oil
window". Temperatures between 100-200 o, the "gas window", form
methane.
V. Alteration begins at 60-70 degree C and continues till H/C ratio is 0.6
and O/C ratio is less than 0.1 at 150 degree C. Peak of oil production-
Catagenesis – reached at about 100-130 degree C
 •
Products of catagenesis:
Initial products are water and carbon dioxide.

Volatile products - hydrogen and methane,

Liquidus products- C13 to C30 formed at higher temperatures.

Oxygen lost rapidly by decarboxylation and dehydration.

Carbon content of Kerogen residue increases, oxygen content

decreases.
So, H/C ratio decreases and O/C ratio increases with increasing
temperature (Van Krevelen Diagram).

Post depositional alteration of organic components into two fractions-

Fluid product rich in hydrogen- petroleum and Natural Gas,

Residuum rich in Carbon- Bituminous Coal.
Van-Krevelen Diagram
 Geology of
Petroleum Systems
 Petroleum System :

Source Rock- Fine grained muddy sediments in which

petroleum originates. E.g. shales, silts, limestone.

Reservoir Rock- Rock containing petroleum in the

subsurface. Petroleum migrates to form a pool in the
reservoir rock. Porous and permeable rocks. E.g.-
Sandstones, Carbonates, fractured shales, jointed igneous
and metamorphic rocks.

Trap Rock- Rock which form a cap and restrains the

petroleum from moving out of the reservoir. E.g. Shale,
Clay, Gypsum, dense limestone. Traps may be structural
and stratigraphic.
 Petroleum Geology
Objectives are to be able to:
• Discuss basic elements of Petroleum Systems
• Describe plate tectonics and sedimentary basins
• Recognize names of major sedimentary rock types
• Describe importance of sedimentary environments
to petroleum industry
• Describe the origin of petroleum
• Identify hydrocarbon trap types
• Define and describe the important geologic
controls on reservoir properties, porosity and
permeability
 Outline
• Petroleum Systems approach
• Geologic Principles and geologic time
• Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir
properties
• Hydrocarbon origin, migration and
accumulation
• Sedimentary environments and facies;
stratigraphic traps
• Plate tectonics, basin development, structural
geology
• Structural traps
 Petroleum System - A Definition
• A Petroleum System is a dynamic hydrocarbon
system that functions in a restricted geologic
space and time scale.

• A Petroleum System requires timely

convergence of geologic events essential to
the formation of petroleum deposits.

These Include:
Mature source rock
Hydrocarbon expulsion
Hydrocarbon migration
Hydrocarbon accumulation
Hydrocarbon retention
(modified from Demaison and Huizinga, 1994)
 Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Elements Seal Rock

Basin Fill
of
Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

 Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration, and Accumulation
Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks
Kerogen
Disseminated Organic Matter in
Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Vitrinite Organic Solvents.

Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.

The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the

best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2

Fair 0.5-1.0 0.2-0.5

Good 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.0

Very Good 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0

Excellent >5.0 >2.0

 Schematic Representation of the Mechanism
of Petroleum Generation and Destruction
Progressive Burial and Heating

Organic Debris
Diagenesis

Oil Reservoir

Kerogen Initial Bitumen

Catagenesis Thermal Degradation
Migration
Oil and Gas

Cracking
Methane
Metagenesis
Carbon

(modified from Tissot and Welte, 1984)

 Comparison of Several Commonly Used
Maturity Techniques and Their Correlation
to Oil and Gas Generation Limits
0.2 65 1

Weight % Carbon in Kerogen

0.3 70 2
Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) %

Spore Coloration Index (SCI)

0.4

Pyrolysis Tmax (C)

0.5 75
Incipient Oil Generation 3
0.6 430
0.7 80
0.8 4
0.9 OIL Max. Oil Generated 85 5
1.0 450
1.2 Wet 6
1.3 Gas 7 465
Oil Floor Dry 90 8
Gas Max.
Dry Gas 9
2.0 10
Wet Gas Floor Generated
3.0
4.0
Dry Gas Floor
95

(modified from Foster and Beaumont, 1991, after Dow and O’Conner, 1982)
 Generation, Migration, and
Trapping of Hydrocarbons

Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)

Migration route
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity

Source rock
 Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Elements Seal Rock

Basin Fill
of
Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Hydrocarbon Traps

• Structural traps
• Stratigraphic traps
• Combination traps

Read in details from the

D chandra’s book
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Hydrocarbon Traps - Dome

Gas
Oil

er
at
W

Sandstone
Shale
 Fault Trap

Oil / Gas
Sand

Shale
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out

Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Other Traps
Meteoric
Water
Asphalt Trap
Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Water Biodegraded Oil

Hydrodynamic Trap Hydrostatic

Head
Shale
Water
Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
Statistics: Introduction
Statistics: Introduction
Basin Classifications
BASIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLATE TECTONICS

Convergent/ Destructive Margin Basins

Forearc basins
Interarc basins
Backarc basins
Foreland basins
Forearc, interarc and backarc basins form at active continental
margins in association with subduction and the development of
island arcs. Numerous examples occur around the Pacific.
BASIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLATE TECTONICS

Foreland basins occur in continental collision zones as elongate

depressions adjacent to actively forming mountain belts, such as the
Andes, Rockies, Alps and Himalayas. The development of foreland
basins is intimately related to the tectonic evolution of the mountains
and ceases when mountain building comes to an end.
 Foreland basin and associated
tectonic elements
 Convergent Margins

• Convergent basin margins

– Trenches, subduction complexes
– Forearc basins
– Intra-arc basins
– Backarc basins
BASIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLATE TECTONICS

Trench

Convergent Margin Basins

BASIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLATE TECTONICS

Transformal Margin Basins

Pull-apart Basins

Pull-apart basins form in areas undergoing transform,

strike-slip tectonics. They are narrow, deep basins that often
show extremely fast subsidence, as typified by the basins
along the San Andreas fault-zone in California.
Characteristics of Pull – Apart
basin
BASIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLATE TECTONICS

Divergent Basins
Rift Basins
Passive Margin Basins
Rift Basins
Continental rift basins form narrow, elongate basins within
continental interiors, such as those found in East Africa or the
periphery of cratons. Rapid subsidence during rifting, typically
lasting 10's millions of years, may be followed by a long period of
slower subsidence, as for example in the North Sea basin, which
was an active rift in the Mesozoic.
 Other well-known recent examples include the Basin and Range
province in the southwestern U.S.A. and the Baikal rift in
Siberia.
 They are relatively narrow & fault-bounded. --Intra-cratonic &
Pericratonic Rift Basins
 Aulacogens: Failed rift arm at Tripple junction to produce ocean
basin.
Basin Classification
 Passive Margin

Indian examples:
a) Intracratonic
rift basins:
Cambay Basin
b) Pericartonic
Rift basins:
K-G basins,
Bombay-offshore
basisn
 Cross-section of a Passive Margin
Cretaceous &
Atlantic Margin Cenozoic sediments
Jurassic salt

Triassic rift valley sediments

Petroleum Basins
of
India
SEDIMENTARY BASINS

 MORE THAN 600 BASINS- IDENTIFIED GLOBALLY.

 ACTIVE HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION - IN
ABOUT 400 BASINS WORLD WIDE.
 ABOUT 180 BASINS- UNDER COMMERCIAL
PRODUCTION.
 THE ULTIMATE HC RESOURCES OF THE WORLD -
ABOUT 620 BILLION TONNES.
 85% OF RESERVES - CONFINED TO ONLY IN 30
BASINS.
SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF INDIA

 SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF INDIA OCCPY - AN AREA OF 3.54

MILLION SQUARE KM and accounts for 4% of the world’s sedimentary
area . 44% covers onland and 56% offshore. Prognosticated Hydrocarbon
reserve: 28 BTOE (<25% established) i.e approx. 205 Billion bbls. Crude
oil production about 38 MMTPA.

 0.3945 MILLION SKM - IN OFFSHORE UPTO 200 M WATER DEPTH.

 1.3902 MILLION SKM - IN ONLAND

 1.7847 MILLION SKM - IN Onland + shallow WATERS up to 200 m

iosbath

 OF THE 26 PETROLIFEROUS BASINS OF India , 15 ARE OF

INTEREST FOR HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION.

 THE SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF INDIA ARE CATEGORIZED INTO

FOUR CATEGORIES BASED ON THE CURRENT STATUS OF
Indian Sedimentary Basins
There are total 26
sedimentary basins in
India with total area 3.14
million skm.
Deepwater
43%

Category-1
17%

Category-2
5%

Category-4
Category-3
15%
20%

Deepwater: 1,350,000 Sq.Km

Onland+ shallow offshore up to 200m isobath:

1.79 million sq. km up to 200m isobath
Sedimentary Basins of India
 Petroleum
Billion cubic metres
Million Metric Tonnes (MMT)
(BCM)
Petroleum
 Indian scenario on oil

• India is 4th largest oil consumer in the world after USA, China
and Japan. Share of crude Oil in primary energy
consumption is about 29.5%, which is second to coal
meeting 54.5% of the total requirements as on 2013*.

• About 75% of domestic oil consumption is met through

imports, as the crude oil production is about 37.8 MMT
against demand of 146 MMT. Thus, there is an express need
for finding new oil and maximising oil production for the
energy security of our country.

• Oil industry is also focussing in Improvement of Recovery

factor for increasing production.

* Source: BP statistical review 2014

 Petroliferous Basins of India
Basin with proven Sedimentary basins are regions
hydrocarbon deposits and within the Earth’s crust where
basins with indications of
considerable thicknesses of
hydrocarbons are defined
as Petroliferous basin sediments have accumulated for
long geological time periods
through subsidence and
Based on:
preserved for long time.
 Nature of Fill
 Geometry
Classification
 Paleogeography
 Tectonic Setting
SEDIMENTRAY BASIN- CHARACTERISTICS
 A DISTINCTIVE SEDIMENT FILL.
 SINGLE OR MUTIPLE DEPOSTIONAL ENVIRONMENTS.
 DISTINCTIVE TECTONIC FRAMEWORK
 ARCHTECTURE WHICH DEFINE THE BASIN TYPE.
 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AS INDICATED BY SEDIMENT FILLS
 STARTIGRAPHIC SEQUENCES RELATED TO TECTONIC
EVENTS
 THERMAL HISTORY- THERMO- TECTONIC EVENTS.
 ECONOMIC DEPOSITES: HYDROCARBON, MINERALS etc
BASIN CLASSIFICATION

 CLASSIFICATION :

 UNTIL 1960, THE SEDIMENTARY BASINS WORLD

WIDE- EXPLAINED IN TERMS OF GEOSYNCLINAL
THEORY.

 THE EVOLUTION OF THE BASINS, THEIR

STRUCTURAL STYLES AND ASSOCIATED
LITHOFACIES HAVE BETTER EXPLAINED NOW
WITH THE PLATE TECTONICS THEORY.
 CATEGORY- I
PROVEN PETROLIFEROUS BASINS WITH COMMERCIAL HYDROCARBONS PRODUCTION.

1. ASSAM SHELF
2. CAMBAY
3. RAJASTHAN
4. ASSAM- ARAKAN FOLD BELT
5. BOMBAY OFFSHORE
6. KRISHNA- GODAVARI
7. CAUVERY
 CATEGORY- II
PROVEN PETROLEUM BASINS AWAITING BASINS COMMERCIAL
PRODUCTION

8. KUTCH
9. MAHANADI
10. ANDAMAN- NICOBAR
 CATEGORY- III
BASINS GEOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED
PROSPECTIVE WITH HYDROCARBON SHOWS.

11. BENGAL-PURNEA BASIN

12. GANGA BASIN
13. HIMALAYAN FOOTHILLS BASIN
14. KERALA- KONKAN- LAKSHWADEEP BASIN
15. SAURASHTRA BASIN
16. VINDHYAN BASIN
CATEGORY- IV FRONTIER BASINS WHICH ARE EITHER
POORLY EXPLORED OR HAVING INADQUATE
GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION OR ARE RATED POOR
BASED ON PRESENT CONCEPTS.

17.KAREWA BASIN
18.SPITI- ZANSKAR BASIN
19.SATPURA- SOUTH REWA- DAMODAR BASINS
20. NARMADA BASIN
21.DECCAN SYNECLISE
22.BHIMA- KALADGI BASIN
23.CUDDAPAH BASIN
24.PRANHITA- GODAVARI BASIN
25.BASTAR BASIN
26.CHATTISGARH BASIN
CATEGORY-I BASINS (7)
Indian Sedimentary Basins

Out of 26 Basins 7 are petroliferous

1973: Assam Shelf

1967: Rajasthan Basin
1889: A&AA FOLD
BELT

1958: Cambay Basin

1980: KG Basin
1974: Mumbai Offshore

1985: Cauvery Basin

 MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
(Pericratonic Rift-Passive Margin basin; a
Tertiary Sedimentary basin)
Mumbai Offshore
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
Geographic Location of the basin
Mumbai Offshore basin is located on the western continental shelf
of India between Saurashtra basin in NNW and Kerela Konkan in
the south.
Area
It covers an area of about 116,000 km2 from coast to 200 m isobath.
Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness
The age of the basin ranges from late Cretaceous to Holocene with
thick sedimentary fill ranging from 1100-5000 m.
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN

Exploration history
• The first oil discovery in this basin was made in the Miocene
limestone reservoir of Mumbai High field in February 1974.
• Subsequent intensification in exploration and development
activities in this basin have resulted in several significant
discoveries including oil and gas fields like Heera,Panna,
Bassein, Neelam,Mukta, Ratna, Soth tapti, Mid Tapti etc.
• In addition number of marginal fields like B-55, B-173A, B-
119/121, D-1 and D-18 have been put on production in the last
decade.
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
Type of Basin- Mumbai offshore is a pericratonic rift basin situated
on western continental margin of India. Towards NNE it continues
into the onland Cambay basin. It is bounded in the northwest by
Saurashtra peninsula, north by Diu Arch. Its southern limit is marked
by east- west trending Vengurla Arch to the South of Ratnagiri and
to the east by Indian craton.

Different Tectonic Zones with in the Basin - Five distinct structural

provinces with different tectonic and stratigraphic events can be
identified within the basin viz.
Surat Depression (Tapti-Daman Block) in the north
Panna-Bassein-Heera Block in the east central part
Ratnagiri in the southern part
Mumbai High-/Platform-Deep Continental Shelf (DCS) in the mid
western side
Shelf Margin adjoining DCS and the Ratnagiri Shelf.
Tectonic Map of Mumbai Offshore basin
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
 RESERVES- 579.86 (O+OEG) MMt
 RESOURCES- 9190 MMt

 EXPLORATION OBJECTIVES
• FAULT CLOSURES AND SEDIMENT WEDGE PROSPECT IN
THE AREA EAST OF HEERA- PANNA TREND
• STRUCTURAL- STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS AND CARBONATE
BUILD- UPS IN THE SOUTHERN SHELF EDGE OF BOMBAY
HIGH.
• DEEP WATER PROSPECTS WEST OF PALEOGENE SHELF
EDGE.
• CARBONATE BUILD- UP AROUND THE PALEOGENE SHELF
EDGE.
• PALEO- SHELF STRUCTURAL TREND OF DCS AREA.
• OLIGOCENE AND PRE- OLIGOCENE SAND BODIES IN
CAMBAY GULF AREA.
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
IMPORTANT OIL AND GAS FIELDS
• BOMBAY HIGH, PANNA, HEERA, RATNA, BASSEIN, MID
TAPTI, SOUTH TAPTI.
SMALLER STRUCTURES & FAULT CLOSURES
• B- 57, BOMBAY HIGH EAST, B- 55, B- 22, B- 33, B- 58, B- 51,
B- 37A
• AROUND BOMBAY HIGH, DEEP CONTINENTAL SHELF
AREA, viz. DCS- 1A, DCS- 2, D- 12 etc.
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
Petroleum System :.

Source Rock
There are three major depocenters in the basin viz. Surat Depression in the north, Shelf
Margin in the west and Central and Vijayadurg Grabens in the south.
Reservoir Rock
Mumbai offshore basin has been blessed with both clastic and carbonate reservoir facies in
almost total Tertiary Section ranging from Paleocene to Middle Miocene.
Cap Rocks
Shale encompassing the coarser clastic facies in the Paleocene section, widespread
transgressive shale overlying the Middle Eocene Bassein Formation, alternation of shale and
tight limestone over early Oligocene Mukta Formation, widespread intervening shale layers
within Early Miocene Mumbai formation over Mumbai High and in DCS area, post Middle
Miocene clay/claystone of Chinchini Formation over parts of Heera etc. had provided
effective seal for the underlying hydrocarbon accumulations in the Mumbai offshore basin.
Entrapment
Mumbai offshore basin has been endowed with a wide variety of entrapment situations like-
structural closures with independent four way closures of very large, large, medium and small
sizes, fault closures and faulted closures with effective fault sealing, strati-structural features
like Paleogene wedges against rising flanks of paleohighs, mud mounds, carbonate build-ups,
unconformity controlled traps, Paleogene and Neogene carbonate wedges against the rising
Eastern and Jaygad Homoclines.
 CAMBAY BASIN
(Intracratonic Rift Basin)
Three stages of basin evolution;

1. Rift (Extensional) stage: Paleocene- Early

Eocene

2. Postrift (Thermal subsidence) stage: Middle

Eocene – Early Miocene

3. Postrift (Structural inversion) stage: Middle

Miocene – Recent
 Cambay Basin
Source Rock
Thick Cambay Shale is the main hydrocarbon source rock in the
Cambay Basin.
In the Ahmedabad-Mehsana Block, coal (well developed within
the deltaic sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and Mehsana fields) is
an important hydrocarbon source rock.
The shales of the Ankleshwar/Kalol formations , shales within
the Miocene section in the Broach depression and the Tarapore
Shales are organically rich, thermally mature and have
generated oil and gas in commercial quantities.
Reservoir Rock
Reservoirs are present within the trap-wacke sequence of the
Olpad Formation containing sand size basalt fragments.
The sandstone reservoirs within the Cambay Shale are in
Unawa, Linch, Mandhali, Mehsana, Sobhasan fields.
  Trap Rock
-The most significant factor that controlled the accumulation of
hydrocarbons in the Olpad Formation is the favorable lithological
change with structural support and short distance migration.
-The lithological heterogeneity and unconformity facilitated
entrapment of hydrocarbons.
-Transgressive shales within deltaic sequences are a good cap rock.

Timing of migration & Trap

formation: The peak of oil generation
and migration is understood to have
taken place during Early to Middle
Miocene.
•
CAMBAY
Rich Petroleum Province of India , narrow, elongated rift
graben,
• extending from Surat in the south to Sanchor in the north
about 425 km long basin.
• The basin with a total area of about 53,500 sq km,
including 6,880 sq km in the shallow waters (Gulf of
Cambay), under intensive exploration for the last 50 years
• Flanked by the Saurashtra-Kutch uplift on the west and
rock exposures of the Aravalli-Delhi system and Deccan
Trap basalts on the east. north, the basin narrows, but
tectonically continues beyond Sanchor to pass into the
Barmer Basin of Rajasthan. On the southern side, the
basin merges with the Bombay Offshore Basin in the
Arabian Sea.
 72 73 74
00’ 00’ 00’
K INDEX
U MAP
T SANCHO
C R UDAIPU INDI
H R A
BAY
B
K OF
BENGA
AU L
24 ST 24
00 I 00
’ N
C PATAN ’
H HIMMATNAG
MEHSAN
A AR
B
A VIRAMGA AHMEDABA
23 DHARANGADHR 23
00 A
S M D 00
’ I ’
N
TARAPU
R VADODAR
A
22 22
00 SAURASHTRA 00
’ ’
CRATON BROAC 10 0 20 40KM.
ALI
AB
E H SCAL
T
E
LEGEN
NEOGENE \
SURA D
HOLOCEN
PALAEOGENE
21 T E 21
00 DECCAN TRAP 00
’ CRETACEOUS ’
JURASSIC
DELHI SUPER GROUP
GULF DAMA ARAVALLI SUPER GROUP
OF N ERINPURA GRANITE
CAMBA MALANI IGNEOUS SUITE
20 20
00 Y ARCHAEN GRANITE & 00
’
GNEISS
72 73 74
00’ 00’ 00’
GEOLOGICAL MAP, CAMBAY BASIN
 CB

Basin Evolution
The evolution of the Cambay basin began following the extensive
outpour of Deccan Basalts (Deccan Trap) during Late Cretaceous
covering large tracts of western and central India. It’s a narrow half
graben trending roughly NNW-SSE filled with Tertiary sediments
with rifting due to extensional tectonics.

Sediment-thickness
Seismic and drilled well data indicate a thickness of about 8 km of
Tertiary sediments resting over the Deccan volcanics.
\
 Tectonic framework
• The Cambay Basin is an intra-cratonic failed or
aborted rift.
• General orientation of the basinal axis is NNW-
SSE, swings to north-south in the northern part
near Tharad.
• Based on major transverse basement ridges and
fault systems, subdivided into five tectonic blocks
• Tharad–Sanchor(North),Mehsana–Ahmedabad,
Tarapur –Cambay,Jambusar–Broachand Narmada
block in south.
• Each tectonic block contains an independent
depo-center except the Narmada block, which
deepens towards SSW direction.
• Cambay Shale has been the main hydrocarbon
source rock in the Cambay Basin.

• Whereas a large part of the Tertiary sediments

represents generally a shallow water environment,
the Cambay Shale and Tarapur Shale represent
slightly deeper and euxinic environments. These
shales as well as shales and coals within the Kalol
Formation, are considered important source rock
sequences.
• Additionally, coal, which is well developed within the
deltaic sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and Mehsana
fields in the northern part of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana
Block, is also inferred to be an important
hydrocarbon source rock.
• Most of the reservoirs in the Cambay
Basin are within the Paleogene
sequences. These reservoirs have been
variously designated .The geometry and
spatial distribution of each reservoir, is
controlled by its environment of
deposition, nature, provenance and
quantity of clastic influx. In some parts
of the basin, hydrocarbons are also
found in Lower and Middle Miocene
reservoirs
• Paleocene – Early Eocene Reservoirs
• Essentially, the Paleocene sequence is a fluvial-deltaic unit
(Olpad Formation) overlying the Deccan Trap and the Early
Eocene is as shallow marine sequence (Cambay Shale). There
are a good number of fields/pools producing from such zones. In
the Cambay-Tarapur block, such producing fields are Nawagam
and Dholka. In addition, the Gamij discovery along the eastern
margin also suggests development of such reservoir facies. Basal
clastics overlying the Deccan Trap and fractured basalts (Trap)
in Padra area also constitute productive reservoirs near the
basin margin.
• Within the Early Eocene Cambay Shale, localized sandstone
reservoirs, are present, as in the Unawa, Linch, Mandhali,
Mehsana and Sobhasan .
• Sandstone reservoirs within the Cambay Shale are oil producers
in Ankleshwar, North Kadi, Linch, Unawa and Jotana areas .
• Delta sequences of Middle Eocene, both in northern and southern
Cambay Basin . In southern part, Hazad delta sands of Middle to Late
Eocene are prolific oil reservoirs in the Ankleshwar and Gandhar fields
. These are distributed over a large area from north of the Mahi Sagar
river to south of the Narmada river.
• In the Northern Cambay Basin, two delta systems are recognized. The
Early Eocene Kadi delta has a limited development with extension upto
Sanand-Kalol fields.
• Deltaic sand bodies belonging to the Kalol Formation (Middle Eocene)
have greater areal distribution and extend southward upto the
Tarapur Block. The deltaic sequence is made up of alternations of
sandstone and shale associated with coal. There are many reservoirs
(K–III, -IV, -IX, -X and –XII) within the Kalol Formation and EP-III
and EP-IV reservoirs within the Vaso Formation developed within
these Eocene deltaic sequences and most of them are hydrocarbon
bearing in almost all the wells drilled in Ahmadabad-Mehsana and
Cambay-Tarapur blocks. The reservoir quality within these reservoirs,
however, deteriorates towards south as compared to the wells in the
north.
• North of the Mahi Sagar River, Late Eocene-
Oligocene sequence hosts OS-I and OS-II
reservoirs, which are locally developed, as in
Cambay field.
• South of the Mahi Sagar River, a thick deltaic
sequence, deposited during Oligocene and
Miocene, prograded up to south Tapti area .
These sandstones are the main reservoirs in most
of the fields discovered in the Gulf of Cambay and
the northern part of Mumbai Offshore, such as
Gauri, N Tapti, M Tapti, S Tapti, C Series of fields
etc. This sequence is observed to possess good
reservoir facies in the entire Gulf of Cambay.
• Early Miocene sandstone reservoirs within
Kathana, viz. Miocene Basal Sand and
Babaguru formations are secondary reservoirs
within the southern part of the basin; however,
the Early Miocene reservoirs together with
Oligocene reservoirs become main reservoirs
in the fields located in the southern part of the
Gulf of Cambay and the northern part of
Mumbai Offshore Basin, where they have good
reservoir properties. Oil has recently been
discovered from reservoirs in Babaguru
Formation in Tarapur block, viz. Dhirubhai-43 to
51.
 Oil & Gas fields
• In 1958, ONGC drilled its first exploratory well on Lunej structure near
Cambay which produced oil and gas.
• The discovery of oil in Ankleshwar structure in 1960 gave boost to the
exploration in the Cambay Basin.
• ONGC has discovered over 97 oil and gas fields (out of 244 prospects
drilled), two of which - Ankleshwar (discovered in1960) and Gandhar
(discovered in 1984/85) - are giant oilfields.
• In addition, exploration drilling under pre-NELP and NELP exploration
licenses in recent years has resulted in discovery of several oil and gas
fields, such as Gauri, Lakshmi, and Ambe in the Gulf of Cambay, and
NSA, Bheema, CB-X, Pramoda, Tarapur-1, Tarapur-G, ESU-1, ESM-1, SPD-
1, PK-2, Sanand E-1, E-4 and E-8, Miroli-1and 6, West Patan-3, Charada-3,
South Kadi-144 and Dhirubhai 43 to 51 within onland basin extending
from Surat in the south to Mehsana in the north. Majority of the
discoveries are of structural and strati-structural type with productive
zones falling mainly within the Miocene, Middle Eocene and Oligocene
sequences. Presence of oil in late to Early Eocene rocks is also known.
CAMBAY BASIN
Petroleum System :

Source Rock
Thick Cambay Shale has been the main hydrocarbon source rock in the
Cambay Basin. In the northern part of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana Block, coal,
which is well developed within the deltaic sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and
Mehsana fields, is also inferred to be an important hydrocarbon source rock.
The total organic carbon and maturation studies suggest that shales of the
Ankleshwar/Kalol formations also are organically rich, thermally mature and
have generated oil and gas in commercial quantities. The same is true for the
Tarapur Shale. Shales within the Miocene section in the Broach depression
might have also acted as source rocks.

Reservoir Rock
There are a number of the reservoirs within the trapwacke sequence of the
Olpad Formation. These consist of sand size basalt fragments. Besides this,
localized sandstone reservoirs within the Cambay Shale as in the Unawa,
Linch, Mandhali, Mehsana, Sobhasan, fields, etc are also present.
CAMBAY BASIN

Trap Rock
The most significant factor that controlled the accumulation of hydrocarbons in
the Olpad Formation is the favorable lithological change with structural
support and short distance migration. The lithological heterogeneity gave rise
to permeability barriers, which facilitated entrapment of hydrocarbons. The
associated unconformity also helped in the development of secondary porosity.
Transgressive shales within deltaic sequences provided a good cap rock.

Timing of migration & Trap formation: The peak of oil generation and
migration is understood to have taken place during Early to Middle
Miocene.
Rajasthan Basin
RAJASTHAN BASIN
 RAJASTHAN BASIN
Type of Basin
Jaisalmer sub-basin - Pericratonic Basin
Bikaner- Nagaur & Barmer-sanchor – Intracratonic Basins
The tectonic evolution of Rajasthan Basin took place in four distinct
phases corresponding to
- Precambrian - Triassic plate movement
- Breaking of Indian plate from southern continent during
Jurassic
- Collision of Indian plate with the Asian plate from Paleocene
onwards
- Uplift of Sind-Baluchistan fold belt resulting in filling up of the
Indus shelf
 Area of the Basin
Total Basinal area: 1,26,000 Sq. km
(Onland)
Sub-basin wise distribution (separated
710 00’ 720 00’ 730 00’ 740 00’ 750 00’ from each other by basement
ridges/faults) :

DE GE
Barmer-Sanchor: 11,000 sq. km

RID
LH
I–
Bikaner-Nagaur : 70,000 sq. km

SA
RG
Jaisalmer : 45,000 sq. km

O
UR
290 290

DH
00’

GA
00’

A
NA
Age of the Basin
-
Age ranges from Cambrian To Recent
ARCH

BIKANER
B- ER

280 280
N
SI

Barmer-sanchor: Tertiary basin

SU KAN

00’ 00’
BA
H

UR JAIPUR
EMARI HIG

ANG
A MP
BI

KISH HELF BI
KA
Bikaner-Nagaur : Paleozoic basin
N

NAGAUR
RH S
PO HIGH
RA

Jaisalmer : Mesozoic & Tertiary basin

H NACHNA
KA

AR
HG
LM

270 270
ARAVALLI
A
SH W
A

Av. Thickness of sediments: 5km

IS

00’ JAISALME 00’

R

LO
JA

RANGE

POKRAN
R B-
SU JODHP
ER UR
M
S AL
260 I N 260
00’ JA ASI 00’
B BARMER
BARM
ER G R

SANCHOR
0 50 100 km
ABEN

IGNEOUS ROCKS
SCALE 750 00’ RJ
710 00’ 720 00’ 730 00’ 740 00’

TECTONIC MAP RAJASTHAN BASINS

Area of the Basin
Total Basinal area: 1,26,000 Sq. km (Onland)
Sub-basin wise distribution (separated from each other by
basement ridges/faults) :
Barmer-Sanchor: 11,000 sq. km
Bikaner-Nagaur : 70,000 sq. km
Jaisalmer : 45,000 sq. km

Age of the Basin

Age ranges from Cambrian To Recent
Barmer-sanchor: Tertiary basin
Bikaner-Nagaur : Paleozoic basin
Jaisalmer : Mesozoic & Tertiary basin
Av. Thickness of sediments: 5km
 RAJASTHAN BASIN
• Rajasthan basin comprises the sedimentary tract lying to the west and
northwest of Aravalli-Delhi fold belt up to Indo-Pakistan border covers
an area of about 126,000 sq km
• Rejuvenation along NW-SW trending Dharwar (old) , E-W Satpura
(older) and NE-SW trending Aravalli-Delhi structural trends (oldest)
and zones of weaknesses were responsible in governing the tectonic
history and structural style of each basin. These three basins are
separated from each other by basement ridges, which are a
manifestation of rejuvenated basement uplifts.
• The Precambrian Malani suite of igneous and metamorphic rocks
constitutes the floor of these basins
• The tectonic evolution of Rajasthan Basin took place in four distinct
phases corresponding to a) Precambrian-Triassic movement b)
Breaking of Indian plate from southern continent during Jurassic c)
Collision of Indian Plate with Asian plate in Paleocene /Eocene
onwards and d) Uplift of Sind-Baluchistan fold belt resulting in filling
up of the Indus shelf.
• Bikaner-Nagaur and Barmer-Sanchor are essentially Paleozoic and
Tertiary basins respectively, whereas the Jaisalmer basin has a well
documented Mesozoic and Tertiary history.
• Bikaner-Naguar Basin is a nearly north-south trending epi-continental
basin with evaporite sequences and is the southern extension of Kohat-
Potwar Basin of Pakistan
• Barmer-Sanchor Basin, a northwest-southeast trending graben is a
northward extension of Cambay Basin. It is separated from Jaisalmer
Basin by an arcuate Fatehgarh fault located in the northwest.
• The basin, floored by Malani igneous suite of rocks, came into existence
some time in Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous and has more than 3km
sedimentary fill
• The Pokhran High separates the Bikaner-Nagaur Sub-basin from
Jaisalmer Sub-basin. Devikot-Nachna uplift separates Jaisalmer Sub-basin
from Barmer-Sanchor Sub-basin.
• Discovery of commercial gas in Pakistan in the early fifties in the
slope and foredeep of Indus geosyncline attracted attention for exploration
in Rajasthan Basins.
 Jaisalmer Basin
• Jaisalmer Basin lying on the northwestern Indian shield, is a pericratonic
shelf, and is a part of foreland shelf of Sind-Baluchistan geosyncline.
• The Precambrian Malani suite of igneous and metamorphic rocks
constitutes the floor of the basin, except in the northern part where the
Late Proterozoic to Early Paleozoic rocks of Bikaner-Nagaur basin
constitutes the basin floor.
• There were two significant tectonic events in the Indus basin which had
most phenomenal impression on the geology of Jaisalmer Basin – Late
Paleozoic-Mesozoic extensional regime (Triassic to Early Paleocene) and
compressional event from Eocene to most recent. The former resulted due
to Gondwanaland fragmentation when Indian plate started to break up
from the African plate; the latter was due to collision of the Indian Plate
with the Eurasian plate.
• The basin is contiguous to gas rich areas of Pakistan, having large gas
fields like Sui, Mari etc. and represents westerly dipping eastern flank of
Indus basin . The maximum thickness of sediments ranging in age from
Cambrian to Recent is estimated to be about 7km in Kishangarh shelf
and 9km in Shahgarh depression.
• Major structural units are recognized in Jaisalmer Basin :
• i. Shahgarh depression
• ii. Kishangarh shelf
• iii. Miajlar depression
• The Jaisalmer-Indus Basin is structurally partitioned by the Ramgarh
fault into Kishangarh shelf to the northeast and the Shahgarh
depression to the southwest. The Ramgarh fault, which is the
easternmost (and probably a master) fault of a major NNW-SSW
trending densely-faulted zone known as the Jaisalmer-Mari fault zone ,
can be traced into Pakistan up the Sulaiman fold belt front and may
extend farther northwards to link up with the Kingri fault. The
Jaisalmer-Mari fault zone appears to be a northward extension of the
Cambay-Barmer rift system, which came into existence during
Paleocene as a result of re-activation along NNW-SSE aligned
Dharwarian trend.
 Bikaner-Nagaur/ Marwar Basin
• Bikaner-Nagaur is a Late Proterozoic-Early Paleozoic basin containing a
lower carbonate/evaporite sequence (Infracambrian-Early Cambrian) and
an upper clastic section (Cambrian-Ordovician)

• The Bikaner-Nagaur Basin was a part of the large Salt Domain Basin in the
Middle East, which encompassed North Gulf and South Gulf Salt basins in
Persian Gulf, Hormuz and West Rub al Khali basins in Saudi Arabia, South
Oman Salt Basin in Oman and Potwar-Kohat basin in Pakistan.

Bikaner
• The Basin isan
Bikaner-Nagaur, possibly holding
intra-cratonic reserves
basin, came intoofexistence
heavy some
oil. time
in Late Proterozoic along with Vindhyan Basin located to the west of the
Aravalli Orogenic belt and traditionally referred as the Trans-Aravalli
Vindhyans.

• The wells drilled so far on the seismic highs in Bikaner-Nagaur basin show
a maximum thickness of sediments to be about 1600m consisting mainly of
Lower Paleozoic sediments with a thin cover of Mesozoic and Tertiary
sediments in the eastern part of the basin.
 Barmer-Sanchor basin

• The Barmer-Sanchor basin is a narrow elongated NW-SE trending

graben showing continuity of post-Cretaceous sediments with Cambay
Basin in the south. Devikot-Nachna uplift with Fatehgarh fault marks
the northern limit of the basin andan E-W trending Tharad Ridge
marks the southern limit while separating it from Cambay basin.

• The structural style in the Barmer-Sanchor Basin appears distinctly

different from that of Cambay Basin, probably as a result of the absence
of influence of the SW-NE aligned Aravalli-Delhi orogenic trend in the
structural and tectonic evolution of the Barmer-Sanchor Basin. The
Cambay Basin was segmented into depressions separated by nearly east-
west and northeast-southwest aligned uplifts during Paleocene-Eocene
due to extension of Aravalli tectonic trend in the northern part, whereas
the Barmer-Sanchor Basin appears as an un-segmented graben even at
these levels but a cross trend along Sarnu Hill Fault divides Barmer-
Sanchor Sub-basin into Barmer Depression in the north and Sanchor
Depression in the south.
 Barmer-Sanchor basin
• However, the Barmer-Sanchor Basin, similar to the tectonic blocks in
northern Cambay Basin, is segmented longitudinally by the presence of a
median ridge bordered by two half-grabens. The structural trends in the
Barmer-Sanchor Basin are, however, mainly in a NNW-SSE direction.
All the structures in the block are also aligned NNW-SSE, sub-parallel to
the marginal faults, and probably result from drape over tilted fault
blocks and horsts on the basin floor.
RAJASTHAN BASIN- PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Source
Lower Goru, Pariwar, Sembar / Bedesir - Baisakhi Shales , Karampur/Badhaura
Jaisalmer
Formation Shales, Bilara Shales and Dolomites
Karampur/Badhaura Shales, Upper Carbonate Dolomites , Bilara Shales
Bikaner-Nagaur
and Dolomites
Barmer-Sanchor Cambay Shale, Tharad shales
Reservoir
Clastic: Baisakhi-Bedesir, Pariwar, Goru, Sanu and Khuiala formation sandstones
Jaisalmer Carbonate: Fractured limestones of the Jaisalmer Formation, Lower Bandah
Limestones / Khuiala Limestones
Upper Carbonate Dolomites, Nagaur Sandstones, Jodhpur Sandstone and
Bikaner-Nagaur
Bilara Dolomites
Sandstones of Barmer and Tharad formations, Silty sandstones of Lathi Formation
Barmer-Sanchor
feldspathic sandstones of Sarnu Hill Formation, conglomerates of Serau Formation
Trap
Anticlinal closures, Fault related closure/traps, Unconfirmity related traps viz., Wedge
Jaisalmer
outs, Lithostratigraphic traps.
Moderate to high basement-controlled anticlinal structures and fault
Bikaner-Nagaur
closures
Roll over anticlines developed on the previously planer boundary faults and fault
Barmer-Sanchor
closures against the transverse faults
 BARMER - SANCHOR BASIN

Hydrocarbon Discovery
• The Mangala, Bhagyam and Aishwariya (MBA) are the three
largest finds in Rajasthan. The Mangala field- considered to be the
largest onshore hydrocarbon find in India in the last two decades -
was discovered in January 2004. This was followed by the discovery
of Aishwariya and Bhagyam fields.
• To date, 37 discoveries have been made by Rajasthan Block , RJ-
ON-90/1, is spread over 3,111 km2 in the Barmer district.
• The production of crude oil from Rajasthan began on August 29,
2009 and 38.4 million tonnes (278 million barrels) was produced
from Barmer-Sanchore Basin till March 31, 2015.
• "As per the latest estimates made by Cairn India, 6.5-7.2 billion
barrels (900-1,000 million tonnes) of oil equivalent resources can be
tapped from Unconventional and Tight Reservoir in Barmer-
Sanchore Basin.
 BARMER - SANCHOR BASIN

Source Rocks
• Shales of the Lower Eocene Dharvi Dungar Formation, and shales
and lignites in the Middle Eocene Thumbli Member may have
source rock characteristics. However, burial depths may not be
sufficient for these to have entered the generation window.
• The Lower Paleocene Fatehgarh Formation, below the Barmer
Formation, is sand dominated and unlikely to possess source rock
characteristics.
• Reservoir Development
• Proven reservoirs range from Precambrian and Late
Cretaceous to Middle Eocene in age and are dominated
by sandstones and siltstones, as well as fractured
basement units and volcanics.
• The main reservoir formations, the Paleocene Fatehgarh
and Barmer Formation, developed during the syn-rift
stages, were deposited in fluvio-deltaic systems.
• Overlying syn-rift deltaics of the Lower Eocene Dharvi
Dungar Formation and post-rift deltaics of the Middle
Eocene Thumbli Member also form clastic reservoirs.
• Most reserves of Mangla Oil field are contained in fluvial
sandstone reservoirs of the Fatehgarh Formation, which
probably ranges in age from Late Cretaceous to Early
Paleocene
• Cap Rocks and Entrapment Conditions
• Thick shale section above and below Dharavi
Dungar sequence boundary is expected to
provide effective top seal
• The majority of hydrocarbons occur in plays
associated with the Paleocene Fatehgarh and
Barmer formations, in both structural and
stratigraphically trapped plays. The remaining
plays occur in overlying Eocene units of the
Dharvi Dungar Formation and Thumbli
Member and in non-conventional plays, such
as fractured basement and volcanics.
ASSAM & ASSAM-ARAKAN
BASIN
Assam-Arakan Shelf
ASSAM-ARAKAN BASIN
The Assam-Arakan Basin is a Poly-cyclic Basin situated in the
northeastern part of India.

The basin covers an area of 116000 Sq.Km & Prognsticated resources : 5040
MMT

Major tectonic elements of the basin are:

• Assam Shelf
• Naga Schuppen belt
• Assam-Arakan Fold belt.
or The Chittagong -Cachar- Tripura- Mizoram-Manipur
Fold Belt.

Filled with about 5000 m of Tertiary sediments above Precambrian

igneous and metamorphic basement. The total sedimentary thickness
may exceed 7000 m of sediments ranging in age between Cretaceous to
Recent in the deepest part of basin
Most of the oil and gas, discovered in Upper Assam, has been
found in the Barail Group of Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene age
and the Tipam Group of Upper Miocene age.
Oil and gas accumulations have also been discovered within the
Langpar and Lakadong formations of Paleocene to Lower Eocene
age in several structures like Dikom, Kathaloni, Tengakhat,
Tamulikhat and Panidihing.
In the Borholla oil field, fractured granitic basement rock of
Precambrian age has been proved to be oil bearing.
The oilfields, discovered so far, are situated only in the areas south
and southeast of the Brahmaputra river and a few in the thrust
belts, associated with Naga thrust.
However, the area to the north of the Brahmaputra river up to the
Eastern Himalayan foothills has remained poorly explored. In the
Assam Arakan fold belt, apart from the Digboi oil field, one major
oil field, namely, the Kharsang field, having oil accumulations in
Upper Miocene (Namsang Fm), has been discovered.
In the Khoraghat and Nambar fields situated in southeastern part
of the Dhansiri Valley, oil occurs in the Bokabil Formation (Middle
Miocene), which is not developed towards north in the
Brahmaputra valley.

In Assam –Arakan Fold belt the first well Badarpur -1 was drilled
in 1911 -12 to a depth of 730 ft by a syndicate which gave oil
indication. Bardarpur Oil Company Ltd. succeeded in finding in
1915. The field was developed and attained a peak production of
1000 BOPD in 1920. The field was abandoned in 1933 after a total
production of 321000 T. Early explorers had drilled at
Chhatachura, Kanchanpur, Patharia and Masimpur near oil shows
upto a depth of 3000 ft without tangible success.

several gas discoveries were made mostly in west Tripura and

Cachar. Some of these are Adamtila (Cachar), Agartala Dome,
Gojalia, Konaban, Manikya Nagar. Some of the recent discoveries
are Tulamura, Khubal and Ambassa drilled in Dholai syncline.
SUMMARY OF TECTONIC EVLUTION OF THE ASSAM & ASSAM ARAKAN BASIN
Phase Age Event

Deposition of Foredeep sequences comprising

Miocene to
IV Surma, Tipam and Moran Group including Alluvium in
Recent
a Foreland setting.

Drift Phase: Deposition of Passive margin sequence

Late
consisting of Jaintia / Disang & Barail Group of
III Cretaceous to
sediments. Drift phase continued until the collision of
Oligocene
Indian plate with Eurasian and Burmese plates.

Rift Phase: Separation of India & Australia from

Gondwanaland with the deposition of Upper
Early
II Gondwanas. End of rifting is marked by local
Cretaceous
volcanism and complete separation of Indian plate
from Antarctica.

Formation of Intra-cratonic grabens with deposition

I Early Permian of Lower Gondwanas when Indian plate was a part of
Gondwanaland.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI
BASIN
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN

Geographic Location of the basin

Extensive deltaic plain formed by two large east coast rivers,
Krishna and Godavari in the state of Andhra Pradesh and the
adjoining areas of Bay of Bengal in which these rivers discharge
their water is known as Krishna Godavari Basin. The Krishna
Godavari Basin is a proven petroliferous basin of continental margin
located on the east coast of India .

Area
Its onland part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part
covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up to 1000 m isobath.

Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness

The basin contains about 5 km thick sediments with several cycles of
deposition, ranging in age from Late Carboniferous to Pleistocene.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN

Exploration history
More than 225 prospects have been probed by drilling of more
than 557 exploratory wells. Hydrocarbon accumulations have
been proven in 75 of these prospects (22 oil & 53 gas). Notable oil
discoveries are Kaikalur, Vadali, Mori, Bantumilli, Lingala,
Suryaraopeta, Gopavaram, Kesanapalli, and Kesanapalli West. The
gas discoveries are Adavipalem, Elamanchili, Enugupalli, Narsapur,
Razole, Tatipaka-Kadali, Pasarlapudi, Mandapeta, etc
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN

RESERVES- 46.22 (O+OEG)

RESOURCES- 1130 MMt

EXPLORATION OBJECTIVES -

 MESOZOIC STRUCTURAL PROSPECTS ASSOCIATED

WITH RIDGES (ONSHORE).
 PALEOCENE/ EOCENE CARBONATE BUILD-UP
(OFFSHORE).
 ROLLOVER ANTICLINES (OFFSHORE).
 EOCENE DELTAIC SEQUENCE ON SHALLOWER
SHELF (OFFSHORE).
 MIOCENE DELTAIC SANDS (OFFSHORE).
 PLIOCENE PINCHOUTS.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN

MAJOR OIL FIELDS

ADAVIPALEM, NDDAMURU, NARSAPUR,
ODALAREVU,PASARLAPUNDI, GOPAVARAM, KAIKALUR,
KESANAPALLI (W), PANDAPETA, NANDIGAMA,
PENUMADAM, PONNAMANDA, TATIPAKA.

Tectonic History :.
Krishna Godavari Basin is a Continental passive margin
pericratonic basin. The basin came into existence following rifting
along eastern continental margin of Indian Craton in early
Mesozoic. The down to the basement faults which define the series
of horst and grabens cascading down towards the ocean are aligned
NE-SW along Precambrian Eastern Ghat trend.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN

Petroleum System :
Krishna-Godavari basin is a proven petroliferous basin with
commercial hydrocarbon accumulations in the oldest Permo-
Triassic Mandapeta Sandstone onland to the youngest
Pleistocene channel levee complexes in deep water offshore.
The basin has been endowed with four petroleum systems,
which can be classified broadly into two categories viz. Pre-
Trappean and Post-Trappean in view of their distinct tectonic
and sedimentary characteristics.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN
Pre -Trappean Petroleum System:
Permo-Triassic Kommugudem-Mandapeta-Red Bed Petroleum System. This is the
oldest known petroleum system in the basin.

Raghavapuram Shale of Lower Cretaceous age is considered as the principal source

rock not only for this system but also for the onland part of the basin. The sequence
comprises essentially carbonaceous shale with intervening sands possibly representing brief
Source Rock
regressive phases in an otherwise major transgressive phase. The organic matter is
dominantly of Type III and III B. The maturity level varies between catagenetic to
inadequately matured in different parts of the basin. TOC is recorded up to 2.4%.
Lenticular sands within Raghavapuram Shale possibly representing intervening regressive
phases are one of the potential exploration targets Recent exploratory efforts in deep
offshore also indicated prospectivity in Cretaceous sequence. Sands within Gollapalli
Reservoir Formation of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous in Mandapeta-Endamuru area and its time
Rock equivalent Kanukollu Formation in Lingala-Kaikalur area are another potential target in this
petroleum system. A northeast southwest trending corridor of Upper Cretaceous Tirupati
Sandstone, product of a regressive phase, between southeastern side of Tanuku Horst and
MTP fault is emerging as another important target.
Raghavapuram Shale acts as effective seal for both Gollapalli reservoirs and the sands
within Raghavapuram Shale. Shale intercalations within Tirupati Formation appear to act as
Cap Rock
seal for the accumulations within the Formation. Razole Formation (Deccan Basalt) acts as a
regional cap for the pre-trappean hydrocarbon accumulations.
While the entrapment style is essentially structural, accumulations in Raghavapuram Shale
Entrapment
have strati-structural element in their entrapment.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN

Late Jurassic-Cretaceous Raghavapuram-Gollapalli-Tirupati-Razole Petroleum System

Kommugudem Formation is the main source rock for this system. It

belongs to Artinskian (Upper Early Permian) age. It has a good
source rock potential with rich organic matter with TOC ranging
Source Rock
between 0.5 to 3% and vitrinite reflectance in the deeper part of the
basin is in the range of1.0 to 1.3. Generation threshold occurred
during Cretaceous.
Mandapeta Sandstone of Permo-Triassic age is the principal
Reservoir Rock
reservoir rock for this system..
Tight layers within Mandapeta Sandstone and the overlying
Cap Rock
argillaceous Red Bed act as effective seals.
Entrapment is essentially structural in nature. As mentioned earlier,
seismic mapping of pre-trappean section has serious problems due
Entrapment
to the presence of a good seismic energy reflector in the form of
Basalt above this system affecting the seismic data quality.
KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN
Post-Trappean Petroleum System:
Palakollu-Pasarlapudi Petroleum System

The Paleocene Palakollu Shale is the source sequence. TOC ranges between 0.6 to >5% and is dominantly
Source Rock humic type, rich in inertinite and about 10-20% contribution is from Type II organic matter. Subsidence
history of Palakollu Shale suggests generation threshold to be around Middle Eocene.
Reservoir Pasarlapudi Formation of Lower to Middle Eocene is the principal producing sequence onland with many
Rock potential reservoir levels.
Laterally persistent shales within Pasarlapudi Formation have been found to act as effective seals for the
Cap Rock accumulations within Pasarlapudi Formation. Palakollu Shale encompassing the occasional sands within the
Formation also acts as seal for them.
Though structural entrapment is the dominant element for Pasarlapudi Formation, strati-structural element
Entrapment
also appears to be occasionally present.

Vadaparru Shale –Matsyapuri / Ravva Formation-Godavari Clay Petroleum System

Vadaparru Shale is the principal source sequence. Average TOC for this sequence is about 4%. Organic
matter is in the early phase of maturation in the coastal part and increases basin ward. Organic matter is of
Source Rock
Type III and has potential to generate both oil and gas. Generation threshold for this sequence is around
Lower Miocene.
Reservoir Sands within Matsyapuri and Ravva Formation and also the sands within Vadaparru Shale are important
Rock potential levels and are known to house significant hydrocarbon accumulations in the basin.
Cap Rock Shales within Matsyapuri and Ravva Formations, Vadaparru Shale and Godavari Clay act as effective seals.
Though structural element plays dominant role for hydrocarbon accumulations in this system, role of strati-
structural element is noticed. Clear understanding of sediment induced tectonics and precise mapping
Entrapment techniques for reservoir facies can yield very rich dividends especially in the younger sequences.
Krishna-Godavari Basin endowed with such effective petroleum systems ranging from Permo-Triassic to
Pleistocene offer very exciting exploration challenges with matching rewards especially in deep water areas.
CAUVERY BASIN
CAUVERY BASIN
CAUVERY BASIN

Geographic Location of the basin

The Cauvery Basin extending Extends along the East Coast of India, bounded by -
08º - 12º 5’ North Latitude , 78° - 80° East Longitude has been under hydrocarbon exploration since
late nineteen fifties.
The first deep well for exploration was drilled in 1964.

Area
The Cauvery Basin covers an area of 1.5 lakh sq.km comprising onland (25,000 sq.km) and shallow
offshore areas (30,000 sq km). In addition, there is about 95,000 sq km of deep-water offshore
areas in the Cauvery Basin.

Basin Type:
Cauvery basin is a pericratonic rift basin but later turns into PASSIVE MARGIN BASIN

Basin Age & Sediment Thickness

Result of Gondwanaland fragmentation during drifting of India- Srilanka landmass system away
from Antarctica/ Australia plate in Late Jurassic/ Early Cretaceous.

•The basin is endowed with five to six kilometers of sediments ranging in age from Late
Jurassic to Recent (mainly thick shale, sandstone & minor limestone) with some prominent
unconformities.
CAUVERY BASIN
Tectonic History :.

The Cauvery Basin is an peri-cratonic rift basin, divided into 4 number of sub-parallel horsts and 5
grabens, trending in a general NE-SW direction. The basin came into being as a result of
fragmentation of the Gondwana land during drifting of India-SriLanka landmass system away from
Antarctica/Australia continental plate in Late Jurassic / Early Cretaceous.

The initial rifting caused the formation of NE-SW horst-graben features. Subsequent drifting
and rotation caused the development of NW-SE cross faults.

The Cauvery Basin contains the following major tectonic elements

•Ariyalur-Pondicherry Depression
•Kumbhkonam-Madnam-Portonovo High
•Tranquebar Depression
•Karaikal High
•Nagapattinam Depression
•Vedarniyam High
•Thanjavur Depression
•Pattukuttai-Manargudi Ridge
•Mandapam Ridge
•Mannar Depression
•Vedarniyam – Tiruchirapally Cross - Fault
Tectonic Map of
Cauvery Basin

The Cauvery Basin cont

ains the following major
tectonic elements

Ariyalur-Pondicherry
Depression
Kumbhkonam-Madnam-
Portonovo High
Tranquebar Depression
Karaikal High
Nagapattinam Depression
Vedarniyam High
Thanjavur Depression
Pattukuttai-Manargudi
CAUVERY BASIN

MAJOR OIL AND GAS FIELDS

Occurrence of Hydrocarbons has been established in commercial

quantities from
Basement, Early Syn rift, Lower & Upper Cretaceous, Palaeocene,
Eocene and
Oligocene sediments.
Till date 33 fields have been established in on land and shallow
offshore.
The first deep well for exploration was drilled in 1964. Minor success was obtained
in the
form of minor oil pool in Karaikal and gas indications in Madanam.
However, when
drilling commenced in offshore success was met in PY-1 and PH-9
prospects in early eighties.
CAUVERY BASIN

RESERVES- 226.54 (O+OEG) MMt as inplace

RESOURCES- 700 MMt

Petroleum System
Sattapadi shale within Cretaceous– main source Kudavasal Shale within Cretaceous
Source
Basal part of Kamalapuram Fm (Paleocene).
Andimadam, Bhuvanagiri & Nannilam Formations within Cretaceous, Kamlapuram
Reservoir
and Niravi Formations within Paleocene & Precambrian Fractured Basement.
Sattapadi shale within Cretaceous. Post unconformity shales like Kudavasal and
Cap Rock
Kamlapuram.
Entrapment Structural/ Stratigraphic, Combination traps.
 CATEGORISATION OF THE SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF INDIA

CATEGORY- II Basin (3)

PROVEN PETROLEUM BASINS AWAITING BASINS

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION

1. KUTCH
2. MAHANADI
3. ANDAMAN- NICOBAR
KUTCH BASIN
Kutch basin is located at the north-western part of the western
continental margin of India. Kutch basin is the earliest pericratonic
rift basin during breakup of Africa and India. This mid-Mesozoic
E-W rift occurs between the Nagar-Parkar basement ridge on the
north and Saurastar Plateau, or Kathiwar uplift on the south.
On the east the rift is constrained by Radhanpur-Barmer arch. To
the west, the basin extends into the western offshore shelf. The
basin is contiguous to the South Indus Basin of Pakistan, where a
number of oil and gas fields have already been discovered.
The basin extents between Latitude 22° 30' and 24° 30' N and
Longitudes 68° and 72° E covering entire Kutch district and western
part of Banaskantha (Santalpur Taluka) districts of Gujarat state.

The total area of the basin is about 71,000 sq. km of which onland
area is 43,000 sq.km and offshore area is 28,000 sq.km upto 200
bathymetry.
KUTCH BASIN
Tectonic set up:
Kutch represents a fossil rift basin (aulacogen) perpendicular to the
strike of the West Indian margin. The oldest sediments in Kutch are
late Triassic (Rhaetian) sands shed onto Precambrian basement rock
The rifting was part of an initial fragmentation within Gondwana
supercontinent. As rifting progressed and Kutch became part of
the passive continental margin of western India, shallow marine
sediments were deposited during Early-Middle Jurassic times, as
recorded by the limestone and shale sediments of the Early
Jurassic Jhurio and Middle Jurassic Jumara Formations. These
sediments are overlain by the deltaic sand and mud sediments of the
Jhuran Formation (Late Jurassic) and fluvial sand-mud sediments of
the Early Cretaceous Bhuji Formation. Mesozoic sediments have
a total thickness of over 3 km.
Nagar Parkar, Kachchh Mainland and North Kathiawar faults are
recognized as the primordial tectonic discontinuities of the basin with
KUTCH BASIN

Exploratory Drilling
Till 31st March 2008, 29 exploratory wells have been drilled in
Kutch Basin. Out of these ONGC has drilled five exploratory wells
in the onland part and twenty two exploratory wells in the offshore
part of the basin.
The Kutch Basin is a Petroliferous basin where one oil and two gas
strikes have been made. The gas pools were struck in GK-29A and
GK-22C structures in sandstone reservoirs of Paleocene and Late
Cretaceous age respectively, whereas oil was struck in KD
structure in Middle Eocene limestone and siltstone reservoirs.

Recently major breakthroughs have been achieved in Kutch Offshore

area where oil has been struck in Mesozoic sediments for the first
time and commercial gas accumulation has been discovered in
Miocene / Eocene sequences (GK-28/42 area). Efforts are on to
Mesozoic
Stratigraphy
of Kutch
Basin After
Krishnan,
1982
Tertiary
Stratigraphy
of Kutch
Basin After
GSI 2001
KUTCH BASIN
Source Rocks
Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic units, in the western onland part of the basin,
contain good source rocks with TOC as high as 10% and T-max suggesting adequate maturity. The
organic matter is of type II and III. Geochemical data of the offshore wells reveal that fair oil-prone and
mature source rocks are present in the shale units of Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene sequences in the
eastern offshore part of the basin.

Reservoir Development

The onshore Tertiary sediments are not promising due to limited thickness but offshore it appears highly
promising .
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Jhuran and Bhuj Formations) deltaic sands with good
permeability and porosity ranging upto 34%, Late Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs with porosity ranging
up to 18%, Paleocene to Early Eocene sandstone reservoirs, Extensive carbonate platforms in association
with shelf-margin reefal bodies, developed during Eocene to Early-Middle Miocene time over almost the
entire western shelfal part of the Kutch Basin and turbidite reservoirs in deep-sea fan complexes provide
excellent reservoirs.
Entrapment Conditions
The tectonic style of the basin marked conspicuously by a number of roughly east-west ridges and
depressions of the Early Mesozoic rift cycle with NNW-SSE horsts and grabens of the Late Cretaceous-
Paleocene late rift cycle superimposed on them, provides ideal situation for formation of structural traps. A
few fault-associated anticlinal features have already been identified in the onland part of the basin with the
help of surface geological data and sparse seismic information. Apart from the structural prospects,
stratigraphic pinchout against paleohighs, shelf margin carbonate buildups and reefs (pinnacle) in offshore
form exploration targets.
MAHANADI BASIN
MAHANADI BASIN

The Mahanadi Basin, a product of rifting and break up of

Gondwanaland, situated on the East Coast of India is a basin with
significant unexplored hydrocarbon potential. Like its immediate
neighboring, Krishna-Godavari Basin, Mahanadi Basin also has a
geological extension into offshore. The onland part of the basin is
limited to north west and west by Pre-Cambrian outcrops belonging to
the Indian crystalline Shield . Towards northeast, it merges into North
East Coast region (NEC) with Bengal Basin lying further northeast.
Onshore Mahanadi Basin is located in the State of Orissa.
Geographically, the shallow offshore part of the basin lies off the
coast of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. The 85° E Ridge occurring to the
south of Lake Chilka forms the approximate southwestern limit of the
basin. Subsequent to Late Oligocene / Miocene period, Mahanadi-
NEC area is so greatly influenced by Bengal deltaic sedimentation
system that its northeastern boundary with Bengal Basin becomes
obscure.
MAHANADI BASIN

Generalised Stratigraphy of Mahanadi (after

R.C Fuloria,1993)
MAHANADI BASIN

SOURCE ROCK:
Early Cretaceous sequence drilled in Paradip Depression AND in the Cuttack Graben has adequate TOC . Most of
the organic matter is of type II and III. Maturation was obtained around 2300 m depth. This indicates similar
possibilities in the deeper parts of other depressions in the basin. Source rock studies on drill cuttings and sidewall cores
from the wells drilled in shallow offshore indicate presence of adequate organic matter (TOC 1.5-2.5%). The organic
matter in the Paleogene and older sequences shows marginal maturity. Additionally, Rock-Eval studies show that
migratory hydrocarbons are present in the Miocene and older sediments of Mahanadi offshore wells.

RESERVOIR ROCKS:
Sandstone reservoir facies have been encountered in the wells drilled in Cuttack Depression in the onshore part of the
basin. The inter-trappean sequences with associated fractured and weathered volcanic flows are also potential reservoir
rocks. Porous and permeable sandstones and carbonates within Late Cretaceous, Paleogene and Early Miocene are the
potential reservoir levels. Reservoir sands within Channel/ Levee complexes of Pliocene and Pleistocene and Late
Oligocene Wedge-outs against the Eocene Hinge in deep offshore part of the basin are also the potential reservoir
targets.

CAP ROCKS:
Presence of claystones and shales at different stratigraphic levels reported from the drilled wells are likely to provide
cap rock in the basin and in particular a relatively thick sequence of Miocene comprised of claystones provides a good
regional cap rock for hydrocarbon accumulation.
ANDAMAN-NICOBAR
BASIN
ANDAMAN BASIN

The Andaman-Nicobar basin, located in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal.
This basin forms a part of Island Arc System which extends from Myanmar in the
north to Indonesia in the south.
The basin occupies an area of 47,000 sq. km including deep waters. (OFFSHORE-
41,000 Sq.Km, ONSHORE- 6,000 Sq.Km)

The Andaman-Nicobar basin represents a typical Island arc system. The basin
came into existence as a result of the northward movement and anticlockwise
rotation of the Island Plate and its under thrusting under the Asian plate in the
Cretaceous time. As subduction progressed, the Outer High Arc complex started
rising steeply, thereby creating a depression or a Fore Arc basin between Volcanic
Arc and the Outer High Arc. Continued thrusting caused uplift and formation of
the Andaman Nicobar Ridge as a chain of Islands. The Andaman chain of islands
form a part of geotectonic regime; “ The Great Indonesian Island Arc System” of
the East Indies and it extends upto Burmese Arc i.e. Arakan Yoma fold belt. It is
more than 5000 km in length.

The prognosticated resources for this basin have been estimated to be about 180
MMt.
ANDAMAN BASIN

Exploration Objectives –
• Structures Within Lower Neogene Sequence.
• Pre- Neogene Sequence Structures.
• Miocene Carbonate Build Ups.
• Neogene Wedges On The Flanks Of Igneous
Intusives.
ANDAMAN BASIN
Tectonic History:

The Andaman-Nicobar Basin has evolved through a complex history of tectonics associated with the
convergent plate boundaries between Indian plate and west Burmese plate. The Andaman-Nicobar
basin was initiated with northward drift of Indian Plate with respect to Asia. The collision of
Indian/Eurasian plates initiated along the irregular boundary and occurred at the same time as the
oceanic subduction beneath the southern Eurasia. The continental collision slowed down the oceanic
spreading rates in the Indian Ocean and slowed down the subduction velocity along the Sunda Arc
system. It resulted in a phase of extension in the adjacent Fore-Arc and Back-Arc areas.

Major Tectonic elements of Andaman-Nicobar region are:

•Andaman Trench/Inner slope
•Outer High/Trench slope break
•Fore Arc Basin
•Volcanic Arc
•Back Arc Basin
•Mergui Terrace

Exploration History

The first exploratory well AN-I-I, drilled in 1980, resulted in discovery of gas flowing @ 180,
000 m3 / day from Middle Miocene limestone. A total of 15 exploratory wells have been drilled in the
Neil and Havelock Islands., 1 of which lies in the western and the remaining are in the eastern Andaman
offshore. Indications of gas from Early Miocene sediments were recorded in a number of wells.
ANDAMAN BASIN

Source Rock
Geochemical analyses have indicated that Andaman-Nicobar region has organic rich sediments. The total organic
carbon (TOC) ranges between 2.4% & 5.2% for Cretaceous to Oligocene Shales and Claystones. The most
favorable source rock in the basin appears to be the Baratang Formation of the Late Cretaceous-Late Eocene age,
comprising of shale, silt, sand, carbonaceous shale, limestone with minor anhydrite and gypsum deposited in
bathyal to shallow marine and open to restrictive euxinic environments.

Reservoir Rock
Port Blair Formation, which is the main reservoir facies in the basin, shows variable properties. Over the Andaman
Islands, the reservoir rock is conglomeratic and pebbly at places, with alternating silty sand and shale or fine to
medium grained massive sand stone at other places. Sandstone reservoirs appear to be restricted to the Middle
Miocene. Drilling results indicate that the main reservoir is Carbonate. The major Carbonate platform shoal
provinces of the Middle and Lower Miocene were generally located in periphery of the Central Uplift. The
Paleogene section in the outcrops of the Outer High and in the subcrops of the Fore Arc basins and Inner Slope
contains turbidite deposits.

Traps
A large number of anticlinal structures within the Cretaceous-Oligocene sequence with fairly good source and
reservoir facies, form excellent entrapment conditions
Stratigraphic Traps
• Pinchout of Beds of Upper Miocene Sequence
• Possible Slump and Turbidite sands in Upper and Middle Miocene Sediments
• Possible Carbonate Reefs (bioherms) in Middle Miocene sequence
• Shale Diapirism in Lower Miocene
BENGAL BASIN
BENGAL BASIN

Geographic Location:
Bengal Basin is situated towards the northeastern part of Indian Peninsula in
the state of West Bengal, lies tentatively between Latitudes 25°-20°30’ and
Longitude 87°30’ – 90° 30’ and falls in the West Bengal state of India and
Bangladesh.
Area
It occupies an area of 89,000 sq.km in total about which 57,000 km2 onland
and 32,000 km2 offshore up to 200 m bathymetry.
Age and Sediment Thickness
The formation of the Bengal Basin ,a composite basin, was initiated during
Middle-Upper Cretaceous time with differential subsidence. This episode
corresponds with the deposition of the subaerial fluvial clastics of the Bolpur
Formation and its facies variant of the shell limestone and shale–sandstone of
the Ghatal Formation in the shelf area. Proximal deposition of a portion of
the orogenic sediment from the eastern Himalaya and the Indo-Burman
Uplifts has built a thick sequence of approximately 20km of deposits in the
Bengal basin.
Tectonic and Structural Setting
Tectonically, the Bengal Basin is a passive margin basin which,
since Oligocene times, has been filled with sediment derived from
the Himalayas, most of which was transported into the basin by
the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and their predecessors.
Below Tertiary Paleozoic Gondwana –rift basins exist.

The eastern part of the basin merges with Assam-Arakan folded

belt

The western part of the basin (the main Indian part and western
Bangladesh) is marked by a margin fault zone, the strata simply
dip homoclinally east and southeast into the Bay of Bengal.
Towards south the basin extends into the offshore region of Bay
of Bengal.
On the western side of the basin, four tectonic zones are
recognised :
The basin margin fault zone,
Shelf/platform,
Shelf/slope break and
Basin deep
Basin Margin Fault Zone
The NNE to SSW-trending basin margin fault zone
differentiates an area of shallow crystalline metamorphic
basement from the Shelf area. It is truncated to the north by
shallow basement ridges that were uplifted during the Mid
Miocene and subsided again during the Pliocene.
Shelf Area
The western foreland shelf extends from the Basin Margin
Fault Zone to the Eocene hinge zone. The shelf dips gently
and homoclinally to the east, and is cut by numerous ‘down
to basin’ faults with small down-ESE displacements.
Sedimentary sections thicken down dip, and additional
marine wedge-shaped sequences develop in the down-dip
direction (Mukherjea & Neogi, 1993).
Hinge Zone
This zone separates the western foreland shelf from the basin
deep to the east and south. It is defined by a moderate down-
ESE flexure in the Kalighat /Sylhet Limestone. The Sylhet
Limestone reaches its maximum thickness of 700-1000 m
in this zone. This zone continues in Mahanadi basin in the
SE and in the Assam –Arakan basin in the NE.
Basin Deep
This comprises a sedimentary prism 10-15 km thick. Drilling
has not yet reached below the Upper Oligocene.
Seismic reflection surveys show that the prominent reflector
at the top of the Sylhet Limestone loses its definition in the
basinal area, possibly due to facies change (Mukherjea &
Neogi, 1993).
The first marine transgression onto passive margin of
India took place during the Campanian. This marine
transgression is represented by the Dhanjaypur
Formation. The Campanian strata are followed by
coarsening upwards successions of clastics - the Bolpur,
Ghatal and Jalangi formations of Maastrichtian to
Palaeocene age.
The flux of clastic sediments into the basin was drastically
reduced during Eocene times, when the basin became a
carbonate platform. This period is represented by the
(relatively thick) Sylhet Limestone Formation, which is
overlain by the (relatively thin) Kopili Shales (Das and Baq,
1996). The Sylhet Limestone is one of the most prominent
regional seismic markers. It also occurs in the Mahanadi Basin
to the south and the Assam Basin to the NE.
The post-Eocene succession in the Bengal Basin represents
the alternating progradation, erosion and transgression of vast
alluvial systems resulting from the erosion of the rising
Himalayan Mountains (Lindsay et al. 1991). Huge amounts of
sediments continued to be deposited today, by the Ganges –
Brahmaputra – Meghna river systems, creating one of the
world’s biggest modern delta systems and the giant Bengal
Fan (Curray, 1994).