MODULE II (1)

PROCESS MANAGEMENT

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 Process

A Process is a program in execution.


A process will need certain resources-such as CPU time,
memory, files, and I/O devices to accomplish its task.


These resources are allocated to the process either
when it is created or while it is executing.


Systems consist of a collection of processes:

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 Program vs Process
 A program is a passive entity, such as a file containing a list of
instructions stored on disk (often called an executable file).
 A process is an active entity, with a program counter specifying
the next instruction to execute and a set of associated resources.
 A program becomes a process when an executable file is loaded
into memory.
Process State

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 Process State
• As a process executes, it changes state.

• Each process may be in one of the following states:

• New: The process is being created. When a program in secondary
memory is started for execution, the process is said to be in a new
state.

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Process State
◦ Ready: After being loaded into the main memory and
ready for execution, a process transitions from a new to a
ready state. The process will now be in the ready state,
waiting for the processor to execute it.
◦ Running: After being allotted the CPU for execution, a
process passes from the ready state to the run state.
◦ Waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
(such as an I/0 completion or reception of a signal).
◦ Terminated: When a process’s execution is finished, it
goes from the run state to the terminate state.

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Process Control Block (PCB)
• Each process is represented in
the operating system by a
process control block(PCB) also
called a task control block.
• It contains many pieces of
information associated with a
specific process, including
these:

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 Process Control Block
(PCB)
Contains information associated with each process
 Process State - new, ready, running etc.
 Program Counter - address of next instruction to be
executed
 CPU registers - general purpose registers, stack pointer etc.
 CPU scheduling information (pointer) - process priority
 Memory Management information - base/limit information
 Accounting information - time limits, process number
 I/O Status information - list of I/O devices allocated

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Switching From Process to Process

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 Schedulers
 Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which
processes should be brought into the ready queue.
 Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds,
minutes)  (may be slow).

 Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which

process should be executed next and allocates CPU.
 Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently
(milliseconds)  (must be fast).

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 Long-term scheduler (or Job scheduler)
 Often, more processes are submitted than can be
executed immediately.
 These processes are spooled to a mass-storage device
(typically a disk), where they are kept for later
execution.
 Job scheduler, selects processes from this pool and
loads them into memory for execution.

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 Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler)
 Whenever the CPU becomes idle, the operating system must
select one of the processes in the ready queue to be executed.
 The selection process is carried out by the short-term scheduler,
or CPU scheduler.
 The scheduler selects a process from the processes in memory
that are ready to execute and allocates the CPU to that process.
 All the processes in the ready queue are lined up waiting for a
chance to run on the CPU. The records in the queues are
generally process control blocks (PCBs) of the processes.

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Medium Term Scheduling

 A medium-term scheduler helps to remove a process from

memory and thus reduce the degree of multiprogramming.
 Later, the process can be reintroduced into memory, and its
execution can be continued where it left off. This scheme is
called swapping.
 The process is swapped out, and is later swapped in, by the
medium-term scheduler.

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 Context Switch
Switching the CPU to another process requires
performing a state save of the current process and a
state restore of a different process.
This task is known as a context switch.
When a context switch occurs, the kernel saves the
context of the old process in its PCB and loads the
saved context of the new process scheduled to run.

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CPU Scheduler (Short-term Scheduler)

 When the CPU becomes idle, the operating

system selects one of the processes from the
ready queue to be executed.
 The selection process is carried out by the
short-term scheduler, or CPU scheduler.
 The scheduler selects a process from the
processes in memory that are ready to
execute and allocates the CPU to that process.

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 Process Scheduling Queues

 Job queue – set of all processes in the system.

 Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main
memory, ready and waiting to execute.
 Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O
device.
 Processes migrate between the various queues.

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Preemptive & Non-preemptive Scheduling
 Non-preemptive Scheduling
o Once CPU has been allocated to a process, the process
keeps the CPU until
 Process exits OR

 Process switches to waiting state

 Preemptive Scheduling
o Process can be interrupted and must release the CPU.
 Need to coordinate access to shared data

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CPU Scheduling Decisions
 CPU scheduling decisions may take place when
a process:
1. switches from running state to waiting state
2. switches from running state to ready state
3. switches from waiting to ready
4. terminates
 Scheduling under 1 and 4 is non-preemptive.
 All other scheduling is preemptive.

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Dispatcher

 Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the

process selected by the short-term scheduler. This
involves:
 switching context
 switching to user mode
 jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart
that program

 Dispatch Latency:
 Time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start
another running.
 Dispatcher must be fast.

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 Scheduling Criteria

 CPU Utilization
o Keep the CPU and other resources as busy as possible
 Throughput
o No of processes that complete their execution per time unit.
 Turnaround time
o amount of time to execute a particular process from its entry time.
 Waiting time
o amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue.
 Response Time (in a time-sharing environment)
o amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first
response is produced, NOT output.

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Scheduling Algorithms
 CPU scheduling deals with the problem of
deciding which of the processes in the ready
queue is to be allocated the CPU.

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1. First Come First Serve (FCFS) Scheduling
Process that requests the CPU FIRST is allocated the CPU FIRST.
FCFS is a non-preemptive algorithm.

Implementation - using FIFO queues

 incoming process is added to the tail of the queue.
 Process selected for execution is taken from head of queue.

Performance metric - Average waiting time in queue.

Gantt Charts - are used to visualize schedules.

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First-Come, First-Served(FCFS) Scheduling

Example Suppose the arrival order

Process Burst Time for the processes is
P1 24  P1, P2, P3
P2 3
P3 3 Waiting time
 P1 = 0;
 P2 = 24;
Gantt Chart for Schedule  P3 = 27;

P1 P2 P3 Average waiting time

 (0+24+27)/3 = 17
0 24 27 30

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FCFS Scheduling (cont.)

Suppose the arrival order for

Example the processes is
P2, P3, P1
Process Burst Time
P1 24 Waiting time
P2 3 P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3;
P3 3
Average waiting time
Gantt Chart for Schedule (6+0+3)/3 = 3 , better..

P2 P3 P1 Convoy Effect:
0 3 6 short process behind long process,
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e.g. 1 CPU bound process, many I/O
bound processes.

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2. Shortest-Job-First(SJF) Scheduling
Associate with each process the length of its next CPU
burst. Use these lengths to schedule the process with
the shortest time.
Two Schemes:
 Scheme 1: Non-preemptive
 Once CPU is given to the process it cannot be preempted until it completes its CPU burst.
 Scheme 2: Preemptive
 If a new CPU process arrives with CPU burst length less than remaining time of current
executing process, preempt. Also called Shortest-Remaining-Time-First (SRTF).
 SJF is optimal - gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of processes.

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Non-Preemptive SJF Scheduling
Example
Process Arrival TimeBurst Time
P1 0 7
P2 2 4
P3 4 1
P4 5 4

Gantt Chart for Schedule

P1 P3 P2 P4

0 7 8 12 16
Average waiting time =
(0+6+3+7)/4 = 4

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Preemptive SJF Scheduling(SRTF)
Example
Process Arrival TimeBurst Time
P1 0 7
P2 2 4
P3 4 1
P4 5 4
Gantt Chart for Schedule

P1 P2 P3 P2 P4 P1

0 2 4 5 7 11 16
Average waiting time =
(9+1+0+2)/4 = 3

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3. Priority Scheduling
 A priority value (integer) is associated with each
process.
The CPU is allocated to the process with the
highest priority.
Equal-priority processes are scheduled in FCFS
order.

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Priority Scheduling
An SJF algorithm is simply a priority algorithm
where the priority (p) is the inverse of the
(predicted) next CPU burst. The larger the CPU
burst, the lower the priority, and vice versa.
 CPU is allocated to process with the highest
priority.
 Preemptive
 Nonpreemptive

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Priority Scheduling (cont.)
SJN is a priority scheme where the priority is the predicted next CPU
burst time.
Problem
 Starvation/indefinite blocking - Low priority processes may never execute.

Solution
 Aging - as time progresses increase the priority of the process.

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 Priority Scheduling (cont.)
Consider the following set of processes, assumed to
have arrived at time 0 in the order P1, P2, · · ·, P5, with
the length of the CPU burst given in milliseconds:

Gantt chart
The average waiting time is 8.2 milliseconds.

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4. Round Robin (RR)
Each process gets a small unit of CPU time
 Time quantum usually 10-100 milliseconds.
 After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end of the ready
queue.
 n processes, time quantum = q
 Each process gets 1/n CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at a time.
 No process waits more than (n-1)q time units.
 Performance
 Time slice q too large - FIFO behavior
 Time slice q too small - Overhead of context switch is too expensive.

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Round Robin - Example
Time Quantum = 20

Process Burst Time

P1 53
P2 17
P3 68
P4 24
Gantt Chart for Schedule

P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P3 P4 P1 P3 P3

0 20 37 57 77 97 117 121 134 154 162

Typically, higher average turnaround time than SRTF, but better response

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