Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Chapter 17

Nutrition, Metabolism,
and Body Temperature
Regulation
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
Lecture Outline
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Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which food is taken
into and used by the body; it includes digestion,
absorption, transport, and metabolism.
The study of nutrition involves the study of the
food and drink requirements for normal body
function.
Nutrients are the chemicals taken into the body
that provide energy and building blocks for new
molecules.
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MyPlate 1

Every 5 years, the U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services (HHS) and the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) jointly make
recommendations on what Americans should eat
to be healthy.
In June 2011, the USDA also introduced MyPlate,
a new food icon to replace the former food guide
icon, called MyPyramid.
MyPlate is a simple visual reminder of how to
build a healthy meal.
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MyPlate 2

The MyPlate icon shows a plate and glass with

portions representing foods from the fruits,
vegetables, grains, proteins, and dairy food groups.
To emphasize the importance of making healthy
food choices, half the plate is fruits and
vegetables.
In addition to the MyPlate icon, the USDA also
launched ChooseMyPlate.gov, a website that
includes information on how to make healthy
dietary choices.
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MyPlate 3

In addition to the MyPlate icon, the USDA also

launched ChooseMyPlate.gov, a website that
includes information on how to make healthy
dietary choices.

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MyPlate

Figure 17.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education Source: US Department of Agriculture
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Kilocalories
Calorie (cal): small calories
• the amount of energy required to raise the temp.
of 1 gram of water 1o C
Kilocalorie (kcal):big calories
• 1000 calories

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Nutrients 1

Nutrients can be divided into six major classes:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Water

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Nutrients 2

A balanced diet consists of enough nutrients in

the correct proportions to support normal body
functions.
Essential nutrients are nutrients that must be
ingested because the body cannot manufacture
them—or it cannot manufacture them in
adequate amounts.
The essential nutrients include certain amino
acids, certain fatty acids, most vitamins,
minerals, water, and some carbohydrates.
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Carbohydrates 1

Contain C, H, O
H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• Example - C6H12O6
Include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides
Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
• Example - glucose and fructose

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Carbohydrates 2

Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example - glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example - glucose + galactose=lactose

Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example - starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

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Types of Carbohydrates 1
Simple:
• no nutritional value
• cause weight gain
• Example - candy and soft
drinks (9 tea. sugar)
• Recommended amount:
sparingly

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Types of Carbohydrates 2
Complex:
• fiber helps decrease colon
cancer and heart disease
• Example - whole grains,
pastas, rice, bread
• Recommended amount: at
every meal
• Serving 1 piece of bread, ½
cup uncooked pasta

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Functions of Carbohydrates
Short-term energy storage
Converted to glucose quickly
Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
Brain cells require glucose

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Lipids 1

Lipids are totally or partially insoluble in water.

Lipids include triglycerides, steroids,
phospholipids, and fat-soluble vitamins.
Triglycerides are the most common type of lipid
in the diet, accounting for about 95% of the total
lipid intake.
If the fat is a liquid at room temperature, it is
referred to as an oil.

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Lipids 2

Fats are saturated if their fatty acids have only

single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
Fats are unsaturated if they have one or more
double bonds.
Monounsaturated fats have one double bond,
and polyunsaturated fats have two or more
double bonds.

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Lipids 3

Saturated fats are found in meat, dairy

products, eggs, nuts, coconut oil, and palm oil.
Monounsaturated fats include olive and peanut
oils.
Polyunsaturated fats are found in fish, safflower,
sunflower, and corn oils.

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Saturated versus Unsaturated Fats

Unsaturated:
• “better” for us
• liquid at room temp.
Saturated:
• “bad” for us
• solid at room temp.

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Trans Fatty Acids

Trans:
• processed fats and oils
• raise LDL and lower HDL
• increase heart disease

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Cholesterol 1

Cholesterol:
• a steroid
• high conc. in brain, liver, egg yolks, whole milk,
cheese, butter, meats
LDL cholesterol:
• low density lipoprotein
• “bad” cholesterol
• carries cholesterol from liver to cells

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Cholesterol 2

HDL cholesterol:
• high density lipoprotein
• “good” cholesterol
• carries cholesterol from cells to liver
• (processed)
• increase HDL through exercise

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Lipids and Diet

Recommended amount:
• sparingly for saturated fats
• cholesterol 300 mg/day (1 egg yolk)

Lipids can:
• cause weight gain and heart disease
• increase risk of colon and pancreatic cancer

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Reducing Fat and Cholesterol

Eat poultry, fish, and beans
Eat vegetables and fruits high in fiber
Use herbs and spices for seasonings
Remove skin
Broil, bake, grill
Limit creams and butter
Avoid processed cheese, egg yolks, liver
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Functions of Lipids
Long term energy storage
Insulates against heat loss
Protective cushion for organs
Cholesterol is part of cell membrane structure

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Proteins 1

Proteins are chains of amino acids and are found

in most of the plant and animal products eaten.
Proteins in the body are constructed of 20
different kinds of amino acids, which are divided
into two groups: essential and nonessential amino
acids.
The body cannot synthesize essential amino acids,
so they must be obtained in the diet.
The nine essential amino acids are histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
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Proteins 2

A complete protein food contains all nine

essential amino acids in the needed proportions,
whereas an incomplete protein food does not.
Animal proteins tend to be complete proteins,
whereas plant proteins tend to be incomplete.
Some plant-based foods, such as soy and quinoa,
are sources of complete proteins.

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Quinoa Soybean

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Proteins 3

Amino acids aren’t stored so a daily supply is

required.
Recommended amount:
• 1 to 2 servings dairy group; 1 to 3 servings nuts/beans;
0 to 2 servings fish, poultry, eggs; red meat sparingly
• Serving 2 to 3 oz.

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Functions of Proteins

Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles

Hemoglobin
Act as enzymes
Immune system functions
Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
Part of cell membrane
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Vitamins 1

Organic molecules in small quantities in food

needed for metabolism
Balance diet gives body variety of vitamins
Absence of vitamins results in deficiency diseases
Fat or water soluble
Fat soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E,
and K.
Water soluble include the B-complex and C.
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Vitamins 2
Essential vitamins cannot be produced by the body and
must be obtained through the diet.

A provitamin is a part of a vitamin that the body can

assemble or modify into a functional vitamin, such as the
conversion in the body to the active form of vitamin D.

Most vitamins function as coenzymes, which combine

with enzymes to make the enzymes functional

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Recommended Dietary Allowances

The Food and Nutrition Board established the
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), which are the
nutrient intakes that are sufficient to meet the needs of
nearly all people in certain age and gender groups.
RDAs were established for different-aged males and
females, starting with infants and continuing on to adults.

RDAs were also set for pregnant and lactating women.

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Vitamin A
A (retinol)
• from provitamin carotene found in yellow and green
vegetables; preformed in liver, egg yolk, butter, and
milk
• necessary for rhodopsin synthesis, normal health of
epithelial cells, and bone and tooth growth
• deficiency causes rhodopsin deficiency, night
blindness, retarded growth, skin disorders, and
increased infection risk

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Vitamin B1
B1 (thiamine)
• found in yeast, grains,
and milk
• involved in carbohydrate
and amino acid
metabolism; necessary
for growth
• deficiency causes
beriberi—muscle
weakness (including
cardiac muscle),
neuritis, and paralysis

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Vitamin B2
B2 (riboflavin)
• found in green vegetables, liver, wheat germ, milk,
and eggs
• component of flavin adenine dinucleotide; involved
in citric acid cycle
• deficiency causes eye disorders and skin cracking,
especially at corners of the mouth

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Vitamin B3
B3 (niacin)
• B3 (niacin)
• found in fish, liver, red
meat, yeast, grains,
peas, beans, and nuts
• deficiency causes
pellagra—diarrhea,
dermatitis, and
nervous system
disorder

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Pantothenic Acid
Pantothenic acid
• found in liver, yeast, green vegetables, grains, and
intestinal bacteria
• constituent of coenzyme-A; glucose production from
lipids and amino acids; steroid hormone synthesis
• deficiency causes neuromuscular dysfunction and
fatigue

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Biotin
Biotin
• found in liver, yeast, eggs, and intestinal bacteria
• fatty acid and nucleic acid synthesis; movement of
pyruvic acid into citric acid cycle
• deficiency causes mental and muscle dysfunction,
fatigue, and nausea

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Vitamin B6
B6 (pyridoxine)
• found in fish, liver, yeast, tomatoes, and intestinal
bacteria
• involved in amino acid metabolism
• deficiency causes dermatitis, retarded growth, and
nausea

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Folate
Folate
• found in liver, green
leafy vegetables, and
intestinal bacteria
• nucleic acid synthesis;
hematopoiesis; prevents
birth defects
• deficiency causes
macrocytic anemia
(enlarged red blood
cells) and spina bifida

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Vitamin B12
B12 (cobalamins)
• found in liver, red meat, milk, and eggs
• necessary for red blood cell production, some
nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism
• deficiency causes pernicious anemia and nervous
system disorders

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Vitamin C
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
• found in citrus fruit,
tomatoes, and green
vegetables
• collagen synthesis;
general protein
metabolism
• deficiency causes
scurvy—defective bone
formation and poor
wound healing

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Vitamin D
Vitamin D (cholecalciferol)
• found in fish liver oil, enriched milk, and eggs;
provitamin D converted by sunlight to cholecalciferol
in the skin
• promotes calcium and phosphorus use; normal
growth and bone and tooth formation
• deficiency causes rickets—poorly developed, weak
bones, osteomalacia; bone reabsorption

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Vitamin E
Vitamin E (tocopherol)
• found in wheat germ; cottonseed, palm, and rice
oils; grain; liver; and lettuce
• prevents oxidation of cell membranes and DNA
• deficiency causes hemolysis of red blood cells

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Vitamin K
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)
• found in alfalfa, liver, spinach, vegetable oils,
cabbage, and intestinal bacteria
• required for synthesis of a number of clotting
factors
• deficiency causes excessive bleeding due to
retarded blood clotting

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Minerals
Mineral are inorganic nutrients that are
essential for normal metabolic functions.
Minerals include calcium, chlorine, chromium,
cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron,
magnesium, manganese, molybdenum,
phosphorous, potassium, selenium, sodium,
sulfur, and zinc.

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Daily Values
Appear on food labels to help people eat healthy
Based on 2000 kilocalorie diet
60% carbs, 30% total fats, 10% sat. fats, 10%
proteins
Used to calculate Percent Daily Value

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RDI and DRV

Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) are based on the
1968 RDAs for certain vitamins and minerals.
Daily Reference Values (DRVs) are set for total
fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, total
carbohydrate, dietary fiber, sodium, potassium,
and protein.

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Food Labels

Figure 17.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration
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Metabolism
Metabolism is the total of all the chemical
reactions that occur in the body.
Catabolism, the energy-releasing process by which
large molecules are broken down into smaller
ones.
Anabolism is the energy-requiring process by
which small molecules are joined to form larger
ones.

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Types of Metabolism
Anabolism (synthesis):
• energy-requiring process
• Example - ADP + P  ATP

Catabolism (decomposition):
• energy-releasing process
• Example - ATP  ADP + P

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ATP
Adenosine
Triphosphate
Energy carrier
Energy is released
when ATP is broken
down
Some ATP is produced
in the cytoplasm
Most ATP is produced
in the mitochondria
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Carbohydrate Metabolism

Monosaccharides are the breakdown

products of carbohydrate digestion, with
the most important being glucose.

Any excess glucose in the blood following

a meal can be used to form glycogen, or it
can be partially broken down and the
components used to form lipids.

The metabolism of carbohydrates involves

anaerobic and aerobic respiration, with
glycolysis being anaerobic and the citric
acid cycle, being aerobic.
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions that
occurs in the cytoplasm.
It results in the breakdown of glucose to two
pyruvic acid molecules.
When glucose is converted to pyruvic acid, two
ATP molecules are used and four ATP molecules
are produced, for a net gain of two ATP molecules.

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Anaerobic Respiration 1

Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose

in the absence of O2.
In human cells, anaerobic respiration results in the
production of two molecules of lactate and two
molecules of ATP.

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Anaerobic Respiration 2

Anaerobic respiration can be divided into two

phases:
Glycolysis:
• glucose undergoes several reactions to produce two
pyruvic acid molecules, two ATP, and two NADH.
Lactate formation:
• pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid and converted
to lactate, the ionized form of lactic acid.

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Glycolysis and Anaerobic Respiration

Figure 17.5
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Aerobic Respiration 1

Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose

in the presence of O2 to produce CO2, water, and
38 molecules of ATP.
Aerobic respiration can be divided into four
phases:
Glycolysis:
• glucose undergoes several reactions to produce two
pyruvic acid molecules, two ATP, and two NADH.

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Aerobic Respiration 2

Acetyl­CoA formation:
• each pyruvate acid moves from the cytoplasm into
the mitochondrion, where they are converted into
acetylCoA.
Citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle:
• each acetylCoA molecule enters the citric acid cycle
where NADH, FADH2, and ATP is formed.

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Aerobic Respiration 5

Figure 17.6
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Lipid Metabolism
Triglycerides are body’s main energy storage
molecules
Between meals triglycerides are broken down
into fatty acids and glycerol
Metabolism occurs in mitochondria
Series of reactions where 2 Carbons are
removed for fatty acids to form acetyl-CoA
Acetyl-CoA combines to form ketones
Too many ketones leads to acidosis in blood
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Protein Metabolism
Proteins are digested into amino acids
Amino acids are taken up by liver
Amino acids are used to make needed proteins
Amino acids can be converted into pyruvic acid
and acetyl-CoA(Acetyl coenzyme A)
Metabolism results in ammonia which is
converted to urea (liver)

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 Overall Pathways for the Metabolism 65

of Food

Figure 17.8
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Metabolic States 1

Absorptive state:
• period immediately after a meal
• nutrients absorbed through intestinal wall
• into circulation and lymphatic systems
• 4 hours after meal
• glucose goes to cells and some glycogen and fat
• fats into adipose
• amino acids used in protein synthesis
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Metabolic States 2

Postabsorptive state:
• late in morning, late afternoon, or night after
absorptive state
• blood glucose levels maintained by converting
molecules to glucose
• first source glucose is liver
• triglycerides converted to glucose
• amino acids converted to glucose
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Events of the Absorptive State

Figure 17.9
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Events of the Postabsorptive State

Figure 17.10
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Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate:
• total amount of energy produced and use in body
per unit of time
• basal metabolic rate: energy needed to keep resting
body functional
• used to determine amount of kilocalories need per
day

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Body Temperature Regulation 1

Average body temp. is 98.6o F (37 Degrees Celsius)

Maintained by balancing heat input with heat loss
Amount of heat exchanged between environment
and body is determined by difference in temps.

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Body Temperature Regulation 2

Temperature regulation occurs by dilation and

constriction of blood vessel in the skin
Sweat glands and skeletal muscles are also
involved.
Homeostasis occurs by a negative feedback system
The hypothalamus is the control center monitoring
body temperature

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Mechanisms for Body Heat Loss 1

Radiation:
• gain or loss of heat as infrared energy between 2
objects not in physical contact
• Example - sun, hot sand, snow

Conduction:
• exchange of heat between objects that in direct
contact
• Example - contact of the bottom of the feet and the
ground
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Mechanisms for Body Heat Loss 2

Convection:
• transfer of heat between body and air or water
• Example - cool breeze over body

Evaporation:
• conversion of water from liquid to gas
• Example - water from body surface

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Heat Exchange

Figure 17.11
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©M.M. Sweet/Getty Images RF
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Temperature Regulation

Figure 17.12
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