UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

DEPARTMENT OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

SD211: CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS I

INTRODUCTION TO
THE STRUCTURE
AND BEHAVIOUR
OF BUILDING MATERIALS
LECTURE No. 5

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1.6.3 Time-dependent Strength
 Static Loads

 Dead Loads:
 Long-term (leading to long-term strength)
 Loads permanently acting on structures
 Example: self-weight of structures

 Live Loads:
 Short-term (leading to short-term strength)
 Examples: people, vehicles, wind, snow,
etc. 2
 Dynamic Loads:
 Dynamic loads are also referred to
as oscillating loads;
 May include live loads;
 Example: loads caused by running
machines in a factory building.

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 Within the life-span of a
structure:
 Strength of materials should be
adequate to support both STATIC
loads and DYNAMIC loads.
 Time dependent strength is
service strength considered in 2
parts:
 Endurance strength for static loads
 Fatigue strength for dynamic or
oscillating loads
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Endurance Strength
The greatest constant stress a
material can endure permanently is
called endurance strength

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Fatigue Strength
 Fatigue strength is based upon the
concept of oscillating stresses
 An oscillating stress shows an
upper limit, σ1, and a lower stress,
σ2.
 Mean stress, σm = (σ1 + σ2)/2
 Stress amplitude, σa = (σ1- σ2)/2
= σ1- σm
= σm- σ2 6
Types of Oscillating Stresses

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 Pulsating stresses: σ1=0; or σ2=0
 Reversing stresses: σm=0; or σ1=-σ2

 Definition:
 Fatigue strength is the greatest
stress amplitude, σa, above a
given mean stress, σm, which a
material can endure for an
infinite number of cycles.

 In practice, ‘Infinite’ means

‘sufficient’; for steel the number of
2x106 cycles is considered ‘sufficient’8
Determination of fatigue strength

 Regular oscillating stress (with a

constant σm, σa and frequency N) is
applied until the material fails.
 The test is performed for a number
of mean stresses, σm.
 First, for a given σm, a maximum
stress amplitude, σa, is chosen which
lies slightly below short-term
strength in static loading. The
material will fail after a few cycles.
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 In follow-up tests, for the same
σm, the stress amplitude, σa, is
reduced step-wise, leading to an
increasing number of cycles
before failure.

 A graph of the stress amplitude,

σa, against number of cycles
leading to failure, N, is called the
Woehler Curve.
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The Woehler Diagram

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 The Woehler diagram only gives
behaviour of a material under
given conditions of σa and σm

 The Smith diagram shows all

stress conditions which can lead
to failure.
 The Smith diagram is derived
from a number of Woehler
curves.
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The Smith diagram

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 1.6.4 Hardness
 Hardness is the resistance of a body
to surface indentations; it is the
resistance of a body to intrusion by
another body.
 Hardness tests include:
 Scratching - Mohs hardness (Rocks)
 Penetration – Brinnel, Rockwell, Vickers
(metals)
 Impact – Rebound hammer (concrete)
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