Fluid Mechanics

University of Palestine
College of Engineering & Urban Planning

Applied Civil Engineering
Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics
Lecturer:
Eng. Eman Al.Swaity
Fall 2009
FLUID STATICS
Hydrostatics is the study of pressures throughout a
fluid at rest and the pressure forces on finite surfaces.
As the fluid is at rest, there are no shear stresses in it.
Hence the pressure at a point on a plane surface always
acts normal to the surface, and all forces are
independent of viscosity.
The pressure variation is due only to the weight of
the fluid. As a result, the controlling laws are relatively
simple, and analysis is based on a straightforward
application of the mechanical principles of force and
moment. Solutions are exact and there is no need to
have recourse to experiment.
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Mechanics 2 Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics
Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area(even imaginary surfaces as in a control volume).
Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal
(Pa).
Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered
in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal
(1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used. [ML-1T-2]
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.
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Pressure
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa =
1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807  104
N/m2 = 9.807  104 Pa = 0.9807 bar =
0.9679 atm
1 atm = 14.696 psi.
1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi.
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Pressure at a Point
By considering the equilibrium of a small triangular wedge of fluid extracted

from a static fluid body, one can show that for any wedge angle θ, the
pressures on the three faces of the wedge are equal in magnitude:
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Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point

in a fluid is the same in
all directions.
Pressure has a
magnitude, but not a
specific direction, and
thus it is a scalar
quantity.
Proof on the
Blackboard
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Pressure at a Point
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Pressure at a Point
This result is known as Pascal's law, which states that the

pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
independent of direction as long as there are no shear
stresses present.
Pressure at a point has the same magnitude in all directions,
and is called isotropic .
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Variation of Pressure with Depth
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure

increases linearly with depth at the
rate of the specific weight of the
fluid.
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In the presence of a gravitational field,
pressure increases with depth because
more fluid rests on deeper layers.
To obtain a relation for the variation of
pressure with depth, consider
rectangular element
Force balance in z-direction gives
F z  maz  0
P2 x  P1x   g xz  0
Dividing by x and rearranging
gives
P  P2  P1   g z   s z
∆z is called the pressure head
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Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the
shape of the container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal
plane in a given fluid.
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Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Actual pressure at a given point is called

the absolute pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage = Pabs - Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
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Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
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Hydrostatic Pressure Difference Between
Two Points
For a fluid with constant density,
If you can draw a continuous line through the same fluid
from point 1 to point 2, then p1 = p2 if z1 = z2.
•By this rule p1 = p2 and p4 = p5
•p2 does not equal p3 even

though they are at the same
elevation, because one cannot
draw a line connecting these
points through the same fluid. In
fact, p2 is less than p3 since
mercury is denser than water.
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Two Points
Any free surface open to the The shape of a container does

atmosphere has atmospheric not matter in hydrostatics
pressure, p0.
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Two Points
Pressure in layered fluid.
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Pascal’s Law
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous fluid
at rest are at the same
pressure, called Pascal’s law,
Pressure applied to a confined

fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same
amount.
In picture, pistons are at same
height:
F1 F2 F2 A2
P1  P2    
A1 A2 F1 A1
Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
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Pascal’s Law
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Pascal’s Law
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Pressure Measurement and Manometers
Piezometer tube
The simplest manometer is a tube,
open at the top, which is attached to a
vessel or a pipe containing liquid at a
pressure (higher than atmospheric) to
be measured. This simple device is
known as a piezometer tube.
This method can only be used for

liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only
when the liquid height is convenient to
measure. It must not be too small or
too large and pressure changes must
be detectable.
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U-tube manometer
This device consists of a glass tube
bent into the shape of a "U", and is
used to measure some unknown
pressure. For example, consider a U-
tube manometer that is used to
measure pressure pA in some kind of
tank or machine.
Finally, note that in many cases (such

as with air pressure being measured
by a mercury manometer), the density
of manometer fluid 2 is much greater
than that of fluid 1. In such cases, the
last term on the right is sometimes
neglected.
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Differential manometer
A differential manometer can be used
to measure the difference in pressure
between two containers or two points
in the same system. Again, on
equating the pressures at points
labeled (2) and (3), we may get an
expression for the pressure difference
between A and B:
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Inverted U-tube Differential manometers
At datum x - x
P1  P 2
PA   A g (h1 )  PB   B g (h2 )   liquid gh
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Inverted U-tube Differential manometers-Example
x-x
P1  P 2
PA  2 1000  9.81  19620 N/m 2
PA   A g (h1 )  PB   B g (h2 )   liquid gh

19620  1000  9.81 0.3  PB  1000  9.81 0.1  800  9.81 0.15
PB  18835 N/m 2  18.8 kN/m 2
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Inclined-tube manometer
As shown above, the differential reading is proportional to the pressure
difference. If the pressure difference is very small, the reading may be too
small to be measured with good accuracy. To increase the sensitivity of
the differential reading, one leg of the manometer can be inclined at an
angle θ, and the differential reading is measured along the inclined tube.
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The Manometer An elevation change of

z in a fluid at rest
corresponds to P/g.
A device based on this is
called a manometer.
A manometer consists of
a U-tube containing one
or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol,
or oil.
Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
P1  P2 pressure differences are
anticipated.
P2  Patm   gh
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Mutlifluid Manometer
For multi-fluid systems
Pressure change across a fluid
column of height h is P = gh.
Pressure increases downward,
and decreases upward.
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous fluid
are at the same pressure.
Pressure can be determined by
adding and subtracting gh
terms.
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Example:U-tube manometer
containing mercury was used to
find the negative pressure in the
pipe, containing water. The right
limb was open to the atmosphere.
Find the vacuum pressure in the
pipe, if the difference of mercury
level in the two limbs was 100
mm and height of water in the left
limb from the centre of the pipe
was found to be 40 mm below.
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P1  P 2
Ppipe  1 gh1   2 gh2  0
Ppipe  110 * 9.81* 0.04  13.6 10 * 9.81* 0.1  0

3 3
Ppipe  13734 N / m  13.73 KN / m

2 2
Ppipe abs.  Ppipe gauge   Ppipe atm.

Ppipe abs.  13.73  100  86.27 KN / m 2
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General Example
The atmospheric pressure is 755 mm of mercury
(sp. Gravity = 13.6), calculate
i) Absolute pressure of air in the tank,
ii) Pressure gauge reading at L.
P1  P 2
0  Pair   mercury g (hmercury )
Pair  13.6  103 * 9.81* 0.6  80kN / m 2
Pabs  Pair  Patm. 
Patm.  0.755 *13600 * 9.81  100.73kN / m 2
Pabs  80  103  100.73  20.73kN / m 2
PL  Pair   water gh  80  103  1000 * 9.81* 2  60.38kN / m 2
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Measuring Pressure Drops
Manometers are well--
suited to measure
pressure drops across
valves, pipes, heat
exchangers, etc.
Relation for pressure
drop P1-P2 is obtained by
starting at point 1 and
adding or subtracting gh
terms until we reach point
2.
If fluid in pipe is a gas,
2>>1 and P1-P2 gh
(Mistyped on page 73)
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The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
PC can be taken to be zero
since there is only Hg vapor
above point C, and it is very
low relative to Patm.
Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation has
many effects: Cooking, nose
bleeds, engine performance,
PC   gh  Patm aircraft performance.
Patm   gh
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The Barometer
Standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure

produced by a column of mercury 760 mm (29.92 inHg
or of water about 10.3 m ) in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
1 atm = 760 torr and 1 torr = 133.3 Pa
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Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged bodies,
water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
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Hoover Dam
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Hoover Dam
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Hoover Dam
Example of elevation
head z converted to
velocity head V2/2g.
We'll discuss this in
more detail in Chapter
5 (Bernoulli equation).
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Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
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Pressure Distributions-Curved Surfaces
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Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces
For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is
called center of
pressure, must be
determined.
Atmospheric pressure
Patm can be neglected
when it acts on both sides
of the surface.
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Resultant Force
The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid is equal
to the product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface
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Resultant Force
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Center of Pressure
Line of action of resultant force
FR=PCA does not pass through
the centroid of the surface. In
general, it lies underneath
where the pressure is higher.
Vertical location of Center of
Pressure is determined by
equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment
of the distributed pressure
force. I
y p  yC  xx ,C
yc A
Ixx,C is tabulated for simple
geometries.
Derivation of FR and examples
on blackboard
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The centroidal moments of inertia for some
common geometries
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Submerged Rectangular Plate
What is the yp for case (a)?
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Submerged Rectangular Plate
What is the yp for case (a)?
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Example: Hydrostatic Force Acting on the
Door of a Submerged Car

A heavy car plunges into a lake during an
accident and lands at the bottom of the lake on
its wheels. The door is 1.2 m high and 1 m wide,
and the top edge of the door is 8 m below the
free surface of the water.
Determine the hydrostatic force on the door and
the location of the pressure center, and discuss if
the driver can open the door.
Pave = PC = ghC = g(s + b/2)= 84.4 kN/m2
FR = PaveA = (84.4 kNm2) (1 m  1.2 m) = 101.3 kN
yP = 8.61 m
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Example: Hydrostatic Force Acting on the
Door of a Submerged Car

Discussion A strong person can lift 100 kg, whose weight is 981 N or
about 1 kN. Also, the person can apply the force at a point farthest from
the hinges (1 m farther) for maximum effect and generate a moment of 1
kN · m. The resultant hydrostatic force acts under the midpoint of the
door, and thus a distance of 0.5 m from the hinges. This generates a
moment of 50.6 kN · m, which is about 50 times the moment the driver
can possibly generate. Therefore, it is impossible for the driver to open
the door of the car. The driver’s best bet is to let some water in (by rolling
Pave = PC = ghC = g(s + b/2)= 84.4 kN/m2
the window down a little, for example) and to keep his or her head close
Fto
R
the
= P ceiling.
ave A = The
(84.4 driver
kNm2) (1 should
m  1.2 be
m) able
= to open
101.3 kN the door shortly before
the car is filled with water since at that point the pressures on both sides
yof the door are nearly the same and opening the door in water is almost
P = 8.61 m
as easy as opening it in air.
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Horizontally immersed surface
gh *A
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Vertically immersed surface
Pressure at any point along the strip p  ρgx

Total pressure on the strip  p  dA  p.b.dx
The Total pressure on the body R   p.b.dx   gx.b.dx
R  g  bx.dx  g ( Ax )  gx A
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Center of Pressure
Pressure at any point along the strip p  ρgx

Total pressure on the strip  p.b.dx
The moment of the pressure about free surface o - o,
M  p.b.dx.(x)
M for all body   p.b.dx.(x)
   b dx  g  x b.dx  gI
2 2
gx o
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Center of Pressure
P  h  gI o
gI o gI o Io IG
h    x
P gx A x A x A
P  gx A
IG
h x
xA
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Example 1
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Example 2
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Example 3
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Inclined Immersed Surface
l sin 
P  gx A
Using the same procedures as in Vertical surface

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P  gx A
I G sin  2
h x
xA
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Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires

integration of the pressure forces that change direction
along the surface.
Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical
components FH and FV separately.
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Horizontal force component on curved surface:
FH=Fx. Line of action on vertical plane gives y
coordinate of center of pressure on curved
surface.
Vertical force component on curved surface:
FV=Fy+W, where W is the weight of the liquid in
the enclosed block W=gV. x coordinate of the
center of pressure is a combination of line of
action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and
line of action through volume (centroid of
volume).
Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2
Angle of force is  = tan-1(FV/FH)
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1) Liquid above surface
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1) Liquid above surface
Horizontal component of force on surface:
By considering the equilibrium of the liquid mass contained in ABC,
we get
FH = F = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected area
(BC) and acting through the centre of pressure of F.
Vertical component of force on surface
By considering the equilibrium of the liquid mass contained in ADEC,
we get
FV = W = weight of liquid vertically above the surface (ADEC) and
through the centre of gravity of the liquid mass.
Resultant force FR pointing downward, and making an angle α with
horizontal
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2) Liquid below surface
Imagine that the space (ADCB)
vertically above the curved surface is
occupied with the same fluid as that
below it (disregard what actually is
filling that space). Then the surface
AB could be removed without
disrupting the equilibrium of the fluid.
That means, the force acting on the
underside of the surface would be
balanced by that acting on the upper
side under this imaginary condition.
Therefore we may use the same The space above the surface ADCB
arguments as in the preceding case: may be empty or contain other fluid.
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2) Liquid below surface
Horizontal component of force on surface:
FH = F = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected area (AB)
and acting through the centre of pressure of F.
Vertical component of force on surface

FV = W = weight of imaginary liquid (i.e., same liquid as on the other side
of the surface) vertically above the surface (ADCB) and through the centre
of gravity of the liquid mass.
Resultant force FR pointing upward, and making an angle α with horizontal
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Example: A Gravity-Controlled Cylindrical
Gate
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m
hinged at point A is used as an
automatic gate. When the water level
reaches 5 m, the gate opens by
turning about the hinge at point A.
Determine (a) the hydrostatic force
acting on the cylinder and its line of
action when the gate opens and (b)
the weight of the cylinder per m
length of the cylinder.
= 36.1 kN
= 39.2 kN
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Example: A Gravity-Controlled Cylindrical
Gate
= 1.3 kN
The weight of the cylinder is
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Example: Curved Surfaces
PV
P1
PH
P2
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pressure at L  103  9.81 1  9.81 kN

pressure at M  103  9.81 4  39.2 kN
For unit width

P1  pL  ( Area )  9.81 3 *1  29.4 kN
1 1
P2    pM  p L  ( Area )   39.2  9.81 3 *1  44.09 kN
2 2
PH  P1  P2  29.4  44.09  73.5 kN
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1
2
1
 
PH 1   gh1  ( Area )   103  9.81 3  3 *1.5  52.98 kN
2
1
2
1
 
PH 2   gh2  ( Area )   103  9.81 1.5  1.5 *1.5  16.55 kN
2
PH  PH 1  PH 2  52.98  16.55  36.43 kN
  1 .5 2
PV 1  850  9.81  1.5  41610N  41.61 kN
2
  1.52
PV 2  10  9.81
3
 1.5  26000N  26 kN
4
PV  PV 1  PV 2  41.61  26  67.61 kN
2 2
P  PH  PV  76.8 kN
76.8
  tan -1  64.6o
36.43
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Buoyancy and Stability
Buoyancy is due to the

fluid displaced by a body.
FB=fgV.
Archimedes principal :
The buoyant force acting
on a body immersed in a
fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by
the body, and it acts
upward through the
centroid of the displaced
volume.
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Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant force has a magnitude equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically
upward.
•Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a

fluid.
•The force results from different pressures on the top and bottom of the
object
•The pressure forces acting from below are greater than those on top
Now, treat an arbitrary submerged object as a planar surface:
Forces on the Fluid
Arbitrary Shape
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Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:

  g
W   h2  h1 A  V 
Then, substituting:
W is the weight of the shaded area

F1 and F2 are the forces on the plane surfaces Simplifying,
FB is the buoyant force the body exerts on the fluid
The force of the fluid on the body is opposite, or vertically upward and is
known as the Buoyant Force.
The force is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
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Fluid Mechanics
We find that the buoyant force acts through the centroid

of the displaced volume.
The location is known as the center of buoyancy.

buoyancy
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We can apply the same principles to floating objects:
If the fluid acting on the upper surfaces has very

small specific weight (air), the centroid is simply that
of the displaced volume, and the buoyant force is as
before.
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Buoyancy force FB is equal

only to the displaced volume
fgVdisplaced.
Three scenarios possible
1. body<fluid: Floating body
2. body=fluid: Neutrally
buoyant
3. body>fluid: Sinking body
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Example 1:
A wooden block of width 1.25 m, depth 0.75
And length 3.0 m is floating in water. Specific weight
Of wood is 6.4kN/m3 find:
0.75 G
h
Position of center of buoyancy B
W  FB 1.25
W  gVdis.
W  0.75 *1.25 * 3.0 * 6.4  18KN
18 103  1000 * 9.81* (h *1.25 * 3)
h  0.489
0.489
Center of buoyancy   0.244m
2
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Example 2:
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Stability
What about a case where the ball is

on an inclined floor?
It is not really appropriate to

discuss stability for this case
since the ball is not in a state of
equilibrium. In other words, it
cannot be at rest and would roll
down the hill even without any
disturbance.
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Stability of Immersed Bodies
Stable Equilibrium: if when displaced returns to equilibrium position.

Unstable Equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new equilibrium position.
Stable Equilibrium: Unstable Equilibrium:
C > CG, “Higher” C < CG, “Lower”

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Stability of Immersed Bodies
Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon

relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.
G below B: stable
G above B: unstable
G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
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Stability of Floating Bodies
If body is bottom heavy

(G lower than B), it is
always stable.
Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center
buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.
The metacenter may be
considered to be a fixed point Measure of stability is the
for most hull shapes for small metacentric height GM. If
rolling angles up to about 20°. GM>1, ship is stable.
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Stability of Floating Bodies
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Metacentre and Metacentric Height
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In Water
EGGD3109 Fluid Mechanics

For rectangular cross section

bd 3
I
12
V  h  bd

Example
W  FB
W  gVdis.
1.472  103  1000 * 9.81* (h * 0.50 *1)
h  0.3
0.3
OB   0.15m
2
OG  0.2
BG  OG  OB  0.2  0.15  0.05m
I 0.53  1 / 12
BM    0.069m
V 0 .3  0 . 5  1
GM  BM  BG  0.069  0.05  0.019m

The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of
Syracuse
The weight of the crown and
nugget are the same in air: Wc =
cVc = Wn = nVn.
If the crown is pure gold, c=n
which means that the volumes
must be the same, Vc=Vn.
In water, the buoyancy force is
B=H2OV.
If the scale becomes unbalanced,
this implies that the Vc ≠ Vn, which
in turn means that the c ≠ n
Goldsmith was shown to be a
fraud!
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Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics

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University of Palestine

College of Engineering & Urban Planning

Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

By considering the equilibrium of a small triangular wedge of fluid extracted

Pressure at any point

This result is known as Pascal's law, which states that the

Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure

Actual pressure at a given point is called

•By this rule p1 = p2 and p4 = p5

•p2 does not equal p3 even

Any free surface open to the The shape of a container does

Pressure applied to a confined

Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

This method can only be used for

Finally, note that in many cases (such

PA   A g (h1 )  PB   B g (h2 )   liquid gh

The Manometer An elevation change of

Ppipe  110 * 9.81* 0.04  13.6 10 * 9.81* 0.1  0

Ppipe  13734 N / m  13.73 KN / m

Ppipe abs.  Ppipe gauge   Ppipe atm.

Standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure

1 atm = 760 torr and 1 torr = 133.3 Pa

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

Door of a Submerged Car

Pave = PC = ghC = g(s + b/2)= 84.4 kN/m2

FR = PaveA = (84.4 kNm2) (1 m  1.2 m) = 101.3 kN

Door of a Submerged Car

Horizontally immersed surface

Pressure at any point along the strip p  ρgx

Pressure at any point along the strip p  ρgx

Using the same procedures as in Vertical surface

FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires

Vertical component of force on surface

The weight of the cylinder is

pressure at L  103  9.81 1  9.81 kN

For unit width

PH  P1  P2  29.4  44.09  73.5 kN

Buoyancy is due to the

•Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a

Forces on the Fluid

Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:

W is the weight of the shaded area

We find that the buoyant force acts through the centroid

The location is known as the center of buoyancy.

We can apply the same principles to floating objects:

If the fluid acting on the upper surfaces has very

Buoyancy force FB is equal

What about a case where the ball is

It is not really appropriate to

Stable Equilibrium: if when displaced returns to equilibrium position.

Stable Equilibrium: Unstable Equilibrium:

C > CG, “Higher” C < CG, “Lower”

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon

If body is bottom heavy

EGGD3109 Fluid Mechanics

For rectangular cross section

EGGD3109 Fluid Mechanics

EGGD3109 Fluid Mechanics

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