CHAPTER-09

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
BY, Mr. AJAY.D
Dept of, OBSTETRICS AND GYNAECOLOGY
 ANATOMY OF
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The reproductive system are essential for the
continuation of human generation.
In human beings, the off springs is delivered by
female.
The process of sexual reproduction, both male and
female organs made anatomically and physiological
different.
Both males and females produce specialized
reproductive germ cells called gametes. In the male,
they are spermatozoa (sperms) and in the female ova
(egg).
Gametes contain genetic materials and chromosomes.
Each gametes contains only 23 chromosomes. When
the two gametes fuse, then it is called zygote. Which
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The zygote embeds or attaches itself in the wall of the
uterus called implantation, and it develops 40 weeks
of gestation (pregnancy) within the uterus.
So, the function of female reproductive system is to
produce ova, and provide the nutrition to developing
fetus, the deliver the baby. After the delivery of the
baby, the female feeds the child with breast milk until
the child can take the semisolid foods.
The function of male reproductive system is to form
the spermatozoa and transmit them to the female
reproductive system.
 ANATOMY OF FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Female reproductive system consist of external and internal
organs.
External organs are external genitalia and mammary gland
(breast).
EXTERNAL
GENITALIA
EXTERNAL GENITALIA:
 External genitalia collectively
known as Vulva, and it consist
of;
i. Mons pubis,
ii. Labia majora,
iii. Labia minora,
iv. Vestibule,
v. The clitoris,
vi. The vaginal orifice,
vii. The hymen and
viii. The vestibular glands
(Bartholin’s glands).
ix. The perinium
1. MONS PUBIS:-
 It is a slight elevation caused by a
pad of fatty tissue over the
symphysis pubis.
 It is covered by skin and course of
pubic hair.

2. LABIA MAJORA:-
 It has two large folds which form
the boundary of the vulva.
 It is composed of skin, fibrous
tissue and fat.
 Its medial surfaces contain large
number of sebaceous and sweat
glands.
 The lateral surfaces of the labia
majora are covered by coarse hair.
3. LABIA MINORA:-
 These are two smaller folds of
skin between the labia majora.
 They contain numerous
sebaceous glands and few sweat
glands.
 The labia minora is devoid of
pubic hair and fat.
 They fuse to form a fold
posteriorly called fourchette.

4. VESTIBULE:-
 The cleft between the labia
minora is called vestibule.
 The vagina, urethra and ducts of
greater vestibular glands open
into the vestibule.
5. CLITORIS:-
 It is corresponds to the penis in the
male and it contains sensory nerve
endings and erectile tissue.
 The exposed portion of the clitoris is
the glans.
 It plays a role in sexual excitement of
the female but no reproductive
significance.
 It is located in the anterior margin of
the vestibule.

6. HYMEN:-
 The hymen is a thin layer of mucous
membranes, that partially occludes
the opening of the vagina.
7. VESTIBULAR GLANDS OR
BARTHOLIN’S GLANDS:-
 The vestibular glands are situated
one on each side near the vaginal
opening.
 They are about the size of a small pea
and have ducts, opening into the
vestibule immediately lateral to the
attachment of the hymen.
 They screte mucus that keeps the
vulva moist.

8. PERINEUM:
 The perineum is the area extending
from the base of the labia minora to
the anal canal.
 It is roughly triangular and consists
of connective tissue, muscle and fat.
It give attachment to the muscles of
BLOOD SUPPLY, LYMPH DRAINAGE
AND NERVE SUPPLY:-
1. Arterial supply:-
Arterial supply is by branches from,
i. Internal pudendal arteries that branch from internal iliac
artery.
ii. External pudendal arteries that branch from external artery.
2. Venous drainage:-
This forms a large plexus which eventually drains into the
internal iliac veins.
3. Lymph drainage:-
This is through the superficial inguinal nodes.
4. Nerve supply:-
This is by branches from pudendal nerves.
MAMMARY
GLANDS
(BREASTS)
INTRODUCTION:
 This is situated on the front side of the chest wall. They are
the accessory glands of the female reproductive system.
 The breasts exist in the male but they are in a rudimentary
form.
 The female breast are quite small until puberty. There after
they grow and develop to mature adult size under the
influence of oestrogen and progesterone.
 The alveoli are stimulated by prolactin hormone from the
anterior pituitary to produce milk soon after the birth of
baby. Oxytocin from the posterior pituitory gland
contracts the alveoli and ducts propel milk towards nipple.
STRUCTURE:-
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE:-  The nipple contain
 In the centre of the breast smooth muscle. They are
there is a projection called very sensitive to lactile
nipple.
stimulation.
 On the surface of the nipple,
there are 15 to 20 small  The nipples becomes
openings of lactiferous ducts. erect when the smooth
 The nipple is surrounded by muscle contracts in
areola which is pigmented area response to stimuli such
of skin. It contains numerous as touch, cold and sexual
sebaceous glands. They
arousal.
produce oily secretion, which
lubricates the nipple in
pregnancy and lactation
period.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE:-
 In the lactating breast,
 The mammary glands consist
glandular tissue
of glandular, fibrous and fatty
tissue. proliferates to support
 Each breast contains about 20 milk production and
lobes each of which contains a recedes again after
number of glandular lactation stops.
structures called lobules.
Where milk is produced.
 Lobule open into tiny
lactiferous ducts, which drain
milk towards the nipple.
 Supporting fatty and
connective tissues run through
the breast, surrounding the
lobules and the breast itself is
covered in subcutaneous fat.
BLOOD SUPPLY, LYMPH
DRAINAGE AND NERVE SUPPLY
1. Arterial supply:- By the thoracic branches of
axillary arteries and from the internal mammary
artery and intercostal arteries.
2. Venous drainage:- An anastomatic venous circle is
situated at the base of the nipple and drains into
axillary and internal mammary veins.
3. Lymphatic drainage:- The lymph of the breast is
drained into axillary lymph vessels and nodes.
4. Nerve supply:- The branches of 4th, 5th and 6th
thoracic nerves supply the breast.
FUNCTIONS:-
During late months of pregnancy and after child birth
the breasts become active to produce milk.
The production and release of milk by the mammary
glands is called lactation. Prolactin a hormone of
anterior pituitary gland stimulates lactation of milk.
The hormone oxytocin secreted by posterior pituitary
causes ejection of milk.
Nervous reflex initiated by suckling or psychological
anticipation of sucking releases oxytocin from
neurohypophysis. This means, when woman’s
emotional stress may disturb lactation.
INTERNAL
GENITALIA
INTERNAL GENITALIA
The internal organs of the
female reproductive
system lie in the pelvic
cavity.
Internal genitalia conists
of,
i. The Vagina
ii. The Uterus
iii. Two Uterine tubes
(Fallopian tubes) and
iv. Two Ovaries.
THE VAGINA
INTRODUCTION
 It is the fibro-muscular tube,
lined with mucous membrane
and consists of stratified
epithelium.
 It opens externally at the
vestibule of vulva, and internally
with the uterus.
 It is situated between the urinary
bladder in the front and rectum
and anus is in the back.
 It runs obliquely upwards and
backwards where it attaches to
the uterus.
 In adult the anterior wall is about
7.5 cms and posterior wall is
about 9cms.
STRUCTURE
 The vagina has three layers; an
outer covering of areolar tissue, a
middle layer of smooth muscle
and an inner lining of stratified
squamous epithilium that forms
ridges (folds) called rugae.
 It has no secretory glands but the
surface is kept moist by cervical
secretions.
 Between puberty and the
menopause, Lactobacillus
acidophilus bacteria are normally
present, which secretes lactic
acid, maintaing the pH between
3.5 to 4.5, due to acidic nature:
inhibits the growth of most
microbes.
BLOOD SUPPLY, LYMPH DRAINAGE
AND NERVE SUPPLY.
Arterial supply: The arterial supply is from the
uterine and vaginal arteries, which are branches of the
internal iliac arteries.
Venous drainage: It is situated in the muscular wall,
which drains into the internal iliac veins.
Lymph drainage: This is through the deep and
superficial iliac glands.
Nerves supply: This consists of parasympathetic
fibers from sacral outflow, sympathetic fibers from the
lumbar outflow and somatic sensory fibers from the
pudendal nerves.
FUNCTIONS
The vagina acts as the receptacle for the penis during
sexual intercourse (coitus).
It provides an elastic passage through which the baby
passes during childbirth.
THE UTERUS
INTRODUCTION
 The uterus is a hallow muscular pear
shaped organ, flattened antero-
posteriorly.
 It lies in the pelvic cavity between
the urinary bladder and the rectum.
 In most women, it leans forward
(anteversion) and it bent forward
(anteflexion) almost at right angles
to the vagina. So, that its anterior
wall rests partly against the bladder
below, and forming the
vesticouterine pouch between the
two organ.
 It is about 7.5cm long, 5cm wide and
its walls are about 2.5cm thick.
 It weighs from 30 to 40 grams.
PARTS OF THE UTERUS
The parts of the uterus are the Between the internal os
fundus, body and cervix.
and external os in the
FUNDUS: This is the dome shaped
part of the uterus above the cervical canal is the
openings of the uterine tubes. histological os. The part
BODY: This is the main part. It is of cervix between
narrowest inferiorly at the histological os and the
internal os where it is continuous
with the cervix. internal os is known as
CERVIX (‘NECK’ OF THE the lower segment of the
UTERUS): This is about 1cm in uterus.
length and the thickest part
opens into the vagina in the
anterior wall. It acts as sphincter.
The cervical canal is very small in
diameter. It is constricted to each
end. It communicates with the
uterus as internal os and opens
below with vagina as external os
STRUCTURE:
The wall of the uterus
consists of three layers of
tissues
Namely, 1) Perimetrium
2) Myometrium
3) Endometrium.
1. PERIMETRIUM Laterally- only the
 The perimetrium( peritoneum), fundus is covered
which is distributed differently because the peritoneum
on the various surface of the forms a double fold with
uterus.
 Anteriorly-it lies over the
the uterine tubes in the
fundus and the body where it is upper free border. This
folded on to the upper surface double fold is the broad
of the urinary bladder. This fold ligament, which at its
of peritoneum forms the vesico-
lateral ends attaches the
uterine pouch.
 Posteriorly-the peritoneum uterus to the sides of the
covers the fundus, the body and pelvis.
the cervix, then it fold back on
the rectum to form the retro-
uterine pouch or pouch of
Douglas.
2. MYOMETRIUM
This is the thickest layer
of tissue in the uterine
wall.
It is a mass of smooth
muscle fibres interlaced
with areola tissue, blood
vessels and nerves.
3. ENDOMETRIUM2) The basal layer:
 This consist of columnar  It lies next to the
epithelium contains a large myometrium, and is
number of mucus-secreting not lost during
tubular glands.
menstruation. It is
 It is divided functionally into
the layer from which
two layers;
the fresh functional
1) The functional layer:
layer is regenerated
 It is the upper layer and it
thickens and becomes rich
during each cycle.
in blood vessels in the first
half of menstrual cycle.
 If the ovum is not fertilized
and does not implant, the
layer is shed during
menstruation.
BLOOD SUPPLY, LYMPH
DRAINAGE AND NERVE SUPPLY:
 Arterial supply: This is by the uterine arteries, branches
of the internal iliac arteries.
 Venous drainage: The veins follow the same route as the
arteries and eventually drain into the internal iliac veins.
 Lymph drainage: Deep and superficial lymph vessels
drain lymph from the uterus and uterine tube to the
aortic lymph node.
 Nerve supply: The nerve supplying the uterus and the
uterine tubes consist of parasympathetic fibers from the
sacral outflow and sympathetic fibers from the lumbar
outflow.
SUPPORTING STRUCTURE OF
UTERUS:
The uterus is supported in the pelvic cavity by
surrounding organs, muscles of the pelvic floor and
ligaments that suspected it form the walls of the
pelvis.
Ligaments
1. BROAD LIGAMENTS:  The ovaries are attached
 These are formed by a double to the posterior wall one
fold of peritoneum, one on
each side of the uterus.
on each side.
 They hang down from the  Blood, lymph vessels and
uterine tubes as though nerves pass to the uterus
draped over them and at their and uterine tubes
lateral ends they are attached
to the sides of the pelvis. between the layers of the
 The uterine tubes are broad ligaments.
enclosed in the upper free
border and near the lateral
ends they penetrate the
posterior wall of the broad
ligament and open into the
peritoneal cavity.
2. ROUND LIGAMENTS:
 These are bands of fibrous
tissue between the two
layers of broad ligament,
one on each side of the
uterus.
 They pass to the sides of the
pelvis then through the
inguinal canal to end by
fusing with the labia
majora.
3. UTEROSACRAL
LIGAMENTS;
 These originate from the
posterior walls of the cervix
and vagina and extend back
wards, one on each side of
the rectum, to the sacrum.
4. TRANSVERSE CERVICAL 5.
( CARDINAL)LIGAMENTS: 
 These extends one from each
side of the cervix and vagina
to the side walls of the pelvis.
PUBOCERVICAL FOSCIA:
This extends forward from
the transverse cervical
ligaments on each side of
the bladder and is attached
to the posterior surface of
the pubic bones.
FUNCTIONS
1. After puberty the uterus bleeds regularly once in 28 days.
This cycle is called Menstrual cycle.
The purpose of menstrual cycle is to prepare the uterus to
receive, nourish and protect a fertilized ovum.
The cycle is usually regular, lasting between 26 to 30 days.
If the ovum is not fertilized a new cycle begins with a short
period of bleeding (menstruation).
2. If the ovum is fertilized the zygote embeds itself in the
uterine wall. The uterine muscle grows to accommodate the
developing embryo (first 8 weeks) and fetus (remainder of
the pregnancy).
3. Uterine secretion nourish the ovum before it implants in
the endometrium, and after implantation, the rapidly
expanding ball of cells is nourished by the endometrial cells
themselves.
4. The placenta, which is attached to the fetus by the
umbilical cord is also firmly attached to the wall of the
uterus.
5.During pregnancy, which normally lasts about 40 weeks,
the muscular walls of the uterus are prevented from
contracting and expelling the baby early by high levels of
the hormones progesterone secreted by the placenta.
6.At the end of pregnancy (at term) the hormone oestrogen
which increases uterine contractility, it becomes the
predominant sex hormone in the blood. In additionally,
oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitory and also
stimulates contraction of uterine muscle.
7.During labor, the uterus forcefully expels the baby by
means of powerfull rhythmic contraction.
THE UTERINE
TUBES
INTRODUCTION
 The uterine tube is also called  The outermost portion of
fallopian tube and oviduct.
each fallopian tube,
 It is about 10cm long and extend
from the sides of the uterus
which catches and
between the body and the channels for released eggs
fundus. is called infandibulum.
 They lie in the upper free border  The ampulla of the
of the broad ligament and their
trumpet- shaped lateral ends
uterine tube makes up
penetrate the posterior wall, about two thirds of its
opening into the peritoneal lengh. The isthmus of the
cavity close to the ovaries. uterine tube is joined to
 The ends of each tube has
the uterus.
fingerlike projections called
fimbriae. The largest fimbriae is
in contact with ovary.
STRUCTURE
The uterine tubes are having three
layers.
Namely,
1. Oter peritonial layer (broad
ligament)
2. Middle smooth muscle layer
3. Inner ciliated columnar epithelium
layer.
Which contains secretory cells that have
microcilli and may provide
nutrition for the ovum.

BLOOD SUPPLY, LYMPH

DRAINAGE AND NERVE
SUPPLY (these are as for the
uterus)
FUNCTIONS
The movements of the fimbriae produce local current
after ovulation and sweep the secondary oocyte into
the uterine tube.
The spermatozoa usually fertilizes a secondary oocyte
in the ampulla of the uterine tube near the ovary.
Few hours after fertilization, the sperm and the
haploid ovum unite and become a diploid fertilized
ovum which is now called zygote.
The zygote undergoes several cell divisions in the
uterus about six days after ovulation. Now it is called a
blastocyst which attaches itself to the uterine wall.
THE OVARIES
INTRODUCTION
 The ovaries are the female
gonads (glands which producing
sex hormones and the egg) and
they lies in a shallow fossa on
the lateral walls of the pelvis.
 They are 2.5 to 3.5cm long, 2cm
wide and 1cm thick. Each is
attached to the upper part of the
uterus by the ovarian ligaments
and to the back of the broad
ligament by a broad band of
tissue called mesovarium.
 Blood vessels and nerves pass
through the mesovarium.

STRUCTURE
The ovaries have two layers of tissue,
outer cortex and inner medulla.
MEDULLA: This lies in the centre and
consists of fibrous tissue, blood
vessels and nerves.
CORTEX:
 This surrounds the medulla.
 It has a framework of connective
tissue or stroma, covered by
germinal epithelium.
 It contains ovarian follicles in
various stage of maturity, each of
which contains an ovum.
 Before puberty the ovaries are
inactive but the stroma already
contains immature (primordial)
follicles, which the female has from
birth.
 During menstrual cycle,
one ovarian follicle
(graafian follicle) matures,
rupture and releases its
ovum into the peritoneal
cavity. This is called
ovulation.
 Following ovulation, the
ruptured follicle develops
into the corpus luteum
(meaning ‘yellow body’)
which in turn will leave a
small permanent scar of
fibrous tissue called corpus
albicans (meaning ‘white
body’) on the surface of the
ovary.
BLOOD SUPPLY, LYMPH
DRAINAGE AND NERVE SUPPLY:
 Arterial supply: This is by the ovarian arteries, which branch
from the abdominal aorta just below the renal arteries.
 Venous drainage: This is into a plexus of veins behind the
uterus from which the ovarian vein arise. The right ovarian
veins opens into the inferior vena cava and the left into the
left renal vein.
 Lymph drainage: This is to the lateral aortic and preaortic
lymph nodes. The lymph vessels follow the same route as the
arteries.
 Nerve supply: The ovaries are supplied by parasympatheric
nerve from the sacral outflow and sympathetic nerve from the
lumbar outflow.
FUNCTIONS
 The ovary is the organ in which the female gamets are stored
and develop prior to ovuation. Their maturation is controlled by
the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitory gland, which
releases gonadotrophins (follicular stimulating hormones{FSH}
and Luteinising hormone{LH}) both of which act on the ovary.
 The ovary has endocrine functions, and release hormones
essential to the physiological changes during the menstrual
cycle.
 During the first half of the cycle, while the ovum is developing
within the follicle, the follicle secretes increasing amounts of
oestrogen.
 However, after ovulation, the corpus luteum secretes primarily
progesterone with same oestrogen.
PHYSIOLOGY OF FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PUBERTY IN
FEMALE
PUBERTY IN THE FEMALE
 Puberty is the age at which the 2.
internal reproductive organs
reach maturity, usually between
the age of 12 to 14 years of life.
3.
This is called menarche, and
marks the beginning of the 4.
childbearing period.
 The ovaries are stimulated by
5.
the gonadotrophins (FSH and
LH) from the anterior pituitory.
 The number of physical and 6.
psychological changes takes
place at puberty:
1. The uterus, uterine tube and
the ovaries reach maturity.
The menstrual cycle and
ovulation begins.
The breast develops and
enlarges.
Pubic hair and axillary hair
begins to grow.
Increasing in the height
and widening of the pelvis.
Increased fat deposited in
the subcutaneous tissue,
especially at the hips and
breast.
MENSTRUAL
CYCLE
INTRODUCTION
 The menstrual cycle is the process of discharge of blood and other
things from the vagina of the women every months from the puberty
to the menopause; excluding pregnancy.
 It is a natural periodical process that brings changes in the female
reproductive system which is responsible for pregnancy.
 It includes changes that occur in the ovary and the uterine walls
simultaneously as a result of changes in the level of hormones in the
blood.
 There are two significant events that occurs within the female
reproductive system;
1. release of single ovum from one of the ovary and
2. The uterine endometrium is prepared for the implantation of a
fertilized ovum.
 If the ovum is not fertilized, the lining is released which results in
menstruation.
 The duration of the cycle averages about 28 days. However, the
period that might differ in different women can range from 20 days to
DEFINITION
The cyclic events that takes place in a rhythmic
fashion during the reproductive period of the woman’s
life is called ‘Menstrual cycle’.
 Menstrual cycle starts at the age of 12 to 15 years.
 First occurrence of menstrual cycle is called Menarche.
 Permanent cessation or stoppage of menstrual cycle is
called Menopause.
 Average duration of menstrual cycle is 28 days.
HORMONES INVOLVED IN THE
MENSTRUAL CYCLE:
Menstrual cycle hormones are the secretory
hormones, which stimulates from the anterior
pituitory gland; which secretes-
1. Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) causes the
maturation of ovarian follicles and stimulates the
release of estrogen, which is responsible for
ovulation.
2. Luteining hormone (LH) which triggers ovulation
and formation of corpus luteum and release of
progesterone.
PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Phases of Menstrual cycle

Ovarian cycle Uterine cycle

1. Follicular phase 1. Menstrual phase
2. Ovulation phase 2. Proliferative phase
3. Luteal phase 3. Secretive phase
OVARIAN CYCLE:
The ovarian cycle involves the formation and
maturation of follicular cells in the ovary. This cycle is
divided into three phases.
Namely,
a) Follicular phase
b) Ovulation phase
c) Luteal phase
1. FOLLICULAR PHASE:-
 After puberty, as a result of the
release of a large amount of FSH
and LH by the anterior pituitory
and in the ovaries the follicles
start to grow.
 During the first stage, the targeted
folliclar cells enlarges upto two
fold to three fold in diameter.
These enlarged folliclar cells are
termed as primordial follicles.
 After a few days, the level of FSH
suppresses LH which accelerates
the growth of 6-10 primary
follicles, that compete for
dominance. Under the influence
of FSH, these cells develops the
layer of granulosa cells as well as
express the LH receptors on the
granulosa.
 The second layer of cells called  The single follicle
theca develops around these
follicles which can produce other further increases in size
sex hormones like oestrogen and and forms the mature
progesterone.
 LH from the anterior pituitory and
follicle.
the oestrogen within the follicle
cause accelerated growth of the
primary foliicle into vesicular
follicle.
 The ovum present inside the follicle
develops aggressively increasing in
size another three fold to four fold.
 After a week or more of growth, one
of the follicles starts out growing
other follicles starts are depressed
in size and they are immature this
process is called atresia.
 The reason behind the process of
atresia is not yet known, however it
is imperatives it prevents more
than one child during pregnancy.
2. OVULATION PHASE:-
 Ovulation in women with regular  If a sperm is fertilized
28 days of menstrual cycle, it
occurs 14th day. with secondary oocyte,
 Few days before the ovulation the it develops into a mature
follicle starts to swell with a ovum and formation of
protruding center called stigma.
 The in-surge of the LH hormone
zygote. If fertilization
and the release of estrogen from doesn’t occur, the
the follicle degrades the cells at secondary oocyte
the stigma and result in a hole. degenerates within the
 The secondary oocyte then
reaches the fallopian tube
fallopian tube.
through fimbriae.
 If there is left-right coordination
between the ovaries is not yet
known; however, occasionally,
both the ovaries release an ovum.
Which results in the formation of
fraternal twins.
3. LUTEAL PHASE:-
 The luteal phase is the last  The falling levels of
phase of the ovarian cycle and it
corresponds with the secretary
progesterone then
phase of the uterine cycle. triggers menstruation.
 During the first few hours of The process from the
ovulation, the remaining start of ovulation to
folliclar cell including the
withdrawal of
granulosa cells and theca cells
develops into lutein cells. This progesterone takes
cells then becomes filled with around two weeks.
lipid components that give them
a yellow appearance. The total
mass of the cells is called corpus
luteum.
 Corpus luteum produces
progesterone that inhibits the
release of FSH and LH falls over
time and the corpus luteum
degenerates.
 Even though the sexual
cycle in all women is not the
same; the duration of the
luteal phase remains more
or less or same in all women.
 In case of successful
pregnancy, the degeneration
of corpus luteum is
prevented by the release of
human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG)
hormone from the placenta.
 Corpus luteum is essential
to produce progesterone
which maintain the new
pregnancy.
UTERINE CYCLE:
The uterine cycle includes the changes in the
endothelial layer of the uterus. It is divided into three
phases.
Namely,
a) Menstrual phase
b) Proliferative phase.
c) Secretive phase.
1. MENSTRUAL PHASE:-
 Menstruation is also called as
Menses, menstrual bleeding or a
period, is the first phase of the
uterine cycle. This occurs as a
result of degeneration of corpus
luteum which inhibits the release
of FSH and LH from the anterior
pitutary and thus prevent the
proliferation of other follicular
cells.
 The menstrual flow often serves as
a sign to inhibite the women is not
pregnant,; however, bleeding
might also occur during pregnancy
due to several reasons.
 The menstrual flow consists of
blood from broken capillaries
secretions from endometrial
glands, endometrial cells as well as
 This phase usually lasts
about 3-5 days but might
range from 2-7 days in some
women. On average 35
milliliters of blood is last
during menstruation, but
10ml to 80ml is considered as
normal.
 A protein called plasmin is
responsible for the
prevention of clotting during
menstruation.
 Pain in the back, stomach
and upper thigh is common
during the first few days of
menstruation and sever pain
is commonly observed in
adolescent girls.
2. PROLIFERATIVE PHASE:-
 This is the second phase of  The estrogen also causes
uterine cycle where the the formation of crypts
estrogen causes the
proliferation of the
in the cervix that
endometrial layer of the facilitate the secretion of
uterus. vaginal discharge.
 After the maturation of  This phase ends when
follicles in the ovary, they
ovulation occurs and the
causes the growth of a new
layer of endometrium called level of estrogen
proliferative endometrium. declines.
 The endometrium become
thick with the rapid cell
multiplication and increases
the mucus producing cell as
well as blood capillaries.
3. SECRETIVE PHASE:-
 The final phase of the uterine  If fertilization occur, the
cycle corresponds with the
fertilized ovum travels to
luteal phase of the ovarian
cycle, which occurs after the uterus through the
ovulation. uterine tube and become
 The corpus luteum releases embedded.
progesterone horemone, which  However, if fertilization
is particularly essential to make
the uterus receptive for the doesn’t occurs;
implantation of the fertilized menstrual occurs and a
ovum. The endometrium new cycle is initiated.
becomes oedematous and the
secretory glands produce a large
amount of watery liquid to
assist the passage of
spermatozoa.
OOGENESIS
OOGENESIS
The process involved in the development of a mature
ovum is called oogenesis.
Oogenesis is a process of formation of ova in ovary. It
also involves three steps;
1. Multiplication stage.
2. Growth stage.
3. Maturation stage.
1. MULTIPLICATION STAGE
In this stage, the
primordial germ cells of
ovary undergoes mitosis
to produce diploid
oogonia. The number of
cells increases. However,
this event takes place in
the early stage of fetal
development.
2. GROWTH STAGE:
 This stage is characterized by
growth and vitellogenesis.
 Vitellogenesis is the process
of formatiuon of yolk
(vitellin) in oocytes. The fully
developed diploid cell of this
stage is called primary
oocyte. ( in mammals it also
secretes zona pellucida :- a
noncellular layer just outside
the plasma membrane.
3. MATURATION STAGE:
 Primary oocyte undergoes
meiosis I to produce one large
secondary oocyte and one small
polar body.
 The secondary oocyte
undergoes meiosis II to produce
one large ootid and one small
polar body.
 The cytokinesis is unequal in
both the division. Ootid is the
functional ovum. The first polar
body also undergoes meiosis II
to produce two polar bodies.
Hence three polar bodies are
formed from one primary
oocyte. The polar bodies do not
INTRODUCTION
TO
EMBRYOLOGY
OVULATION:-
The process of dischage of
secondary oocyte from
the mature graafian
follicle is called
ovulation. It occurs at
14th day of menstrual
cycle.
FERTILIZATION:-
The process of fusion of
male and female gametes
(spermatozoa and ovum)
is called fertilization.
ZYGOTE:-
This is the diploid cell
formed after fusion of
haploid gamates
(sperm+ovum).
MORULA:-
After zygote formation,
nucleus divides into two
blastomeres by mitotic
division. The blastomers
continue to divide until
16 cell stage occurs is
called morula.
BLASTOCYST:-
On day 4th and 5th the
morula is covered by
mucus and the cells of
murula seperates to form
blastocyst.
Outer side of morula
becomes the
trophectoderm that
finally differentiateds into
chorion while the inner
cells become inner cell
mass which subsequently
forms the embryo.
TROPHOBLAST:-
Before implantation, the
trophectoderm
differentiateds into inner
cellular layer called the
cytotrophoblast and
outer syntio-trophoblast.
Placenta and the fetal
membranes 9chorion
and amnion) are derived
from trophoblast.
IMPLANTATION:-
Implantation occurs in the
endometrium on 6th day
that corresponds to 20th
day of regular menstrual
cycle.
It involves four stage:
1. Apposition.
2. Adhesion.
3. Penetration
4. Invasion.
The deeper penetration is
termed as interstitial
implatation.
DECIDUA:-
The endometrium of
pregnant uterus is called
the decidua.
In endometrium, there is
increased structural and
secretory activity
following implantation
due to progesterone
which is called decidual
reaction.
CHORION:-
It is the outer most layer of
fetal membrane consisting
of two embryonic layer –
outer trophoblast and inner
primitive mesochyma that
appears on 9th day. The
chorion and the amnion
together form the amniotic
sac.
CHORIONIC VILLI:-
At 3 weeks the
syncytiotrophoblast
produces finger like
projections called the
primary stem villi which
later develop into chorionic
villi.
EMBRYO:-
The first 8 weeks of
intrauterine life is called
embryonic stage.
The embryo differentiated into
three layers of tissue:
1. Outer ectoderm:
producing the skin and
nervous system.
2. Middle mesoderm: from
which develop connective
tissues, the circulatory
system, muscles and
bones.
3. Inner endoderm: which
forms the digestive system,
lungs and urinary system.
PLACENTA:-
UMBILICAL CORD:-
Placenta is a circular disc
attached to the uterine wall. It It is a long cord like
is about 15-20 cm diameter structure extending from
and 3 cm thickness in the fetus to the placenta. It
center and 1 cm in the margin
and Wight is about 500 g.
is bluish white in color,
It has two surfaces:
and is about 50 cm long
1. Fetal surface:- it is covered
and 1.5 cm in diameter.
by smooth glistening
amnion with umbilical cord
attached at or near its
center.
2. Maternal surface:- it is
rough and spongy and has a
dull red color due to
maternal blood. It has 15-20
convex polygons called the
lobes or cotyledons.
AMNIOTIC FLUID:-
The clear or slightly yellow
fluid that surrounds and
protects an unborn baby
(fetus) during pregnancy.
It is contained in the
amniotic sac. It formed
after 12 days of conception.
FETUS:-
A fetus is an unborn
offspring that develops
and grows inside the
uterus. The fetal period is
begins at 9 weeks after
fertilization till term.
MENOPAUSE
MENOPAUSE:-
The menopause (climacteric) usually occurs between
the age of 45 to 55 years, marking the end of child
bearing period.
It may occur suddenly or over a period of year,
sometimes as long as 10 years, and is caused by a
progressive reduction in oestrogen levels, as the
number of functional follicles in the ovaries declines
with age.
The ovaries gradually become less responsive to FSH
and LH and ovulation and the menstrual cycle become
irregular, eventually ceasing.
Several other phenomena may occur at the same time,
including:
 Short-term unpredictable vasodilatation with flushing,
sweating and palpitations causing discomfort and
disturbance of the normal sleep pattern.
 Shrinkage of the breasts.
 Axillary and pubic hair become sparse.
 Atrophy of the sex organs.
 Gradually thinning of the skin.
 Episodes of uncharacteristic behavior, e.g, irritatability,
mood change.
 Loss of bone mass predisposing to osteoporosis.
 Slow increase in blood cholesterol levels that increase the
risk of cardiovascular disease in post menopausal woman
to that in males of the same age.