HORMONES

Dr. Neelam H. Zaidi

Hormones
 The hypothalamus regulates the
neuroendocrine system, maintaining
homeostasis in the body.
 The hypothalamus can use motor nerves to
send short-lived hormones to send chemical
messages with a longer duration.
The Chain of Command
 The hypothalamus produces several different
“releasing” hormones that travel to the
pituitary gland.
 Each releasing hormone stimulates the
pituitary to release a corresponding hormone
which travels to an endocrine gland and
causes it to start producing a particular
endocrine hormone.
The Pituitary
 The posterior lobe of the pituitary
regulates water conservation, milk letdown,
and uterine contraction in women.
 The anterior lobe regulates the other
endocrine glands.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
 Growth hormone (GH)
 Thyrotropin -stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Prolactin (PRL)
Contd
Contd
 All are proteins
 All except GH activate cyclic AMP second-
messenger systems at their targets
 TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH are all tropic
hormones (regulate the secretory action of
other endocrine glands)
Growth Hormone (GH)
 Produced by somatotrophs
 Stimulates most cells, but targets bone and
liver
 Promotes protein synthesis and encourages
use of fats for fuel
 GH release is regulated by
 Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH)
 Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

(somatostatin)
Actions of GH
 Direct action of GH
 Stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and
cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors
 Mobilizes fats, elevates blood glucose by
decreasing glucose uptake and encouraging
glycogen breakdown (anti-insulin effect of GH)
Homeostatic Imbalances of GH

 Hypersecretion
 In children results in Gigantism
 In adults results in Acromegaly
 Hyposecretion
 In children results in pituitary Dwarfism
 Hypothalamus
Inhibits GHRH release secretes growth
Feedback
Stimulates GHIH hormone—releasing
Anterior hormone (GHRH), and
release
pituitary somatostatin (GHIH)
Inhibits GH synthesis
and release
Growth hormone

Indirect actions Direct actions

(growth- (metabolic,
promoting) anti-insulin)

Liver and
other tissues
Produce

Insulin-like growth
factors (IGFs)
Effects Effects

Carbohydrate
Skeletal Extraskeletal Fat
metabolism

Increases, stimulates
Reduces, inhibits
Increased protein
Increased cartilage Increased Increased blood Initial stimulus
synthesis, and
formation and fat breakdown glucose and other
cell growth and Physiological response
skeletal growth and release anti-insulin effects
proliferation Result
Thyrotropin-Stimulating Hormone

 TSH stimulates the normal development and

secretory activity of the thyroid gland
 Regulation of TSH release
 Stimulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH)
 Inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid
hormones that act on the pituitary and
hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus

TRH

Anterior pituitary

TSH

Thyroid gland

Thyroid
hormones

Stimulates
Target cells
Inhibits
Figure 16.7
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(Corticotropin)

 ACTH increases the synthesis of

corticosteroids by the adrenal cortex and
also stimulates their release from the gland.

 Regulation of ACTH release

 Triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin-
releasing hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm
 Internal and external factors such as fever,
hypoglycemia, and stressors can alter the
release of CRH
Pituitary Gonadotropins
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior
pituitary
 FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm)
production
 LH promotes production of gonadal
hormones
 Absent from the blood in prepuberal boys
and girls
Contd
 Regulation of gonadotropin release
 Triggered by the gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty
 Suppressed by gonadal hormones (feedback)
Prolactin (PRL)
 Secreted by lactotrophs of the anterior
pituitary
 Prolactin: stimulate mammary growth and
the production and secretion of milk.
Contd
 Regulation of Prolactin release
 Primarily controlled by prolactin-inhibiting
hormone (PIH) (dopamine)
 Blood levels rise toward the end of
pregnancy
 Suckling stimulates Prolactin release and
promotes continued milk production
Endorphins
 Endorphins are a group of polypeptides
which influence the transmission of nerve
impulses
 They play a role in the endogenous control
of pain perception
Hormone of Middle Lobe of Pituitary

 Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone:

 MSH darkens the skin and is involved in skin
pigmentation by deposition of melanin by
melanocytes
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
 Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) regulates the
kidney’s retention of
water.
 Oxytocin initiates
uterine contraction
during childbirth and
milk release in mothers.
 These hormones are
actually synthesized in
the hypothalamus and
stored in the posterior
pituitary.
Biological Clocks
 The pineal gland is
located in the brain, it
secrets melatonin.
 Release of melatonin is
controlled by light/dark
cycles.
 The primary functions of
melatonin appear to be
related to biological
rhythms associated with
reproduction.
 Circadian rhythms – 24
hours long.
Thyroid Hormones
 The thyroid gland, located
in the neck, produces:
 Two iodine-containing
hormones, triiodothyronine
(T3) and thyroxine (T4).
 Function: – increase
metabolic rate and promote
growth.
 Calcitonin – stimulates
calcium uptake by bones.
Contd
 The hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary
control the secretion
of thyroid hormones
through two negative
feedback loops.
 Parathyroid Hormone
 The parathyroid glands are
four small glands attached to
the thyroid.
 The hormone they produce is
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
which regulates the level of
calcium in the blood.
 Essential that calcium is kept within
narrow limits for muscle
contraction, including the heart.
 PTH increases serum Ca2+ level by
acting on bones, kidney and
intestines.
 Calcium Homeostasis
 Two antagonistic
hormones :
 Parathyroid hormone
(PTH) and Calcitonin,
play the major role in
calcium (Ca2+)
homeostasis in
mammals.
Contd
Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland,
stimulates Ca2+ deposition in the bones and
secretion by the kidneys, thus lowering blood
Ca2+ levels.
PTH, secreted by the parathyroid glands, has
the opposite effects on the bones and
kidneys, and raises Ca2+ levels.
Also has an indirect effect, stimulating the
kidneys to activate vitamin D, which promotes
intestinal uptake of Ca2+ from food.
Adrenal Steroid Hormones
 Mammals have an adrenal gland above each
kidney.
 Adrenal medulla is the inner core which
produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and
norepinephrine.
 Adrenal cortex is the outer shell that
produces the steroid hormones cortisol and
aldosterone.
Anatomy
of
Adrenal
Gland
Adrenal Medulla
 The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine
(adrenalin) and norepinephrine in times of
stress.
 Identical to the effects of the sympathetic
nervous system, but longer lasting.
 Accelerated heartbeat, increased blood pressure,
higher levels of blood sugar and increased blood
flow to heart and lungs.
Adrenal Cortex
 According to function, steroid hormones are divided
into three types
 1. Glucocorticoids: primarily affect metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids e.g. cortisol,
cortisone and corticosterone.
 2. Mineralo-corticoids: primarily affect the
reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ (Mineral
metabolism) and distribution of water in tissues, e.g.
aldosterone (chief mineralocorticoid).
 3. Cortical sex hormones (androgens and estrogens):
Primarily affect secondary sex characters.
Adrenal Cortex
 The adrenal cortex produces the steroid
hormone cortisol (hydrocortisone).
 Reduces inflammation.
 Synthetic derivatives such as prednisone are used
as anti-inflammatory agents.
 Stimulates carbohydrate metabolism.
Adrenal Cortex
 The adrenal cortex also produces
aldosterone.
 Aldosterone acts in the kidney to promote
the uptake of sodium & other salts from the
urine.
 These salts are important in nerve conduction.
 Aldosterone and PTH are the only two
hormones essential for survival.
Pancreas Hormones
 The pancreas is located
behind the stomach and
is connected to the
small intestine by a
small tube.
 It secretes digestive
enzymes into the
digestive tract
(exocrine function).
 Endocrine function –
production of insulin
and glucagon.
Glucose Homeostasis
 The islets of
Langerhans in the
pancreas secrete
insulin and glucagon.
 Insulin removes
glucose from the
blood.
 Glucagon returns
glucose to the
blood.
Diabetes
 Diabetes Mellitus
 Perhaps the best-known endocrine disorder
 Is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a
decreased response to insulin in target
tissues.
 Marked by elevated blood glucose levels.
Contd
Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent
diabetes) is an autoimmune disorder in which
the immune system destroys the beta cells of
the pancreas.
Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-
dependent diabetes) is characterized either
by a deficiency of insulin or, more commonly,
by reduced responsiveness of target cells due
to some change in insulin receptors.
Sex Hormones
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin(hCG)

 This hormone is secreted by the syncytiotrophoblast

formed in the placenta .
 Levels can first be detected by a blood test about 11
days after conception and about 12-14 days after
conception by a urine test.
 Typically, the hCG levels will double every 72 hours.
The level will reach its peak in the first 8-11 weeks
of pregnancy and then will decline and level off for
the remainder of the pregnancy
 Pregnancy tests: Increased urinary excretion of
hCG which occurs in early pregnancy forms the basis
for pregnancy tests
Contd
 hCG is a glycoprotein composed of two subunits, α
and β.
 There are multiple forms found in the serum and
urine during pregnancy including the intact
hormone and each of the free subunits.
 HCG is primarily catabolized by the
liver, although about 20% is excreted in the
urine.
 The beta subunit is degraded in the kidney to
make a core fragment which is measured by urine
hCG tests.
THANK YOU
References
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 Lippincott’s’’ Illustrated Reviews Biochemistry
 Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry
 Path physiology of Endocrinology system Colorado State University
 Basic and Clinical Endocrinology – Francis Greenspan – David G.Gardner
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