Chapter 4 Security Techniques

Chapter 4
Security Techniques
Objectives
 Cryptography
 Introduction
 Definitions and Terms
 Cryptanalysis Schemes
 Cipher Methods (Operations)
 Private Key cryptosystems
 Public key cryptosystems
 Hash (Message Digest) Algorithms
 Data Encryption Standards(DES) and Advanced Encryption Standards(AES)
 Digital Signature/Digital Certificates/Certificate Authorities (CAs)
 Access Control
 Firewalls
 Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS)
 Authentication
 PKI and Kerberos (Network-Based Authentication)
10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 2
Cryptography- Definition
● The word Cryptography comes from the Greek words

krypto ’hidden’ and grapho ’writing’
↓
● Therefore, we can say that cryptography is the science of
the secret (or hidden) writing
↓
● Initially, it appears to solve the communication needs in
the presence of an adversary (in military or diplomatic
scenarios)
Cryptography- Basic Terminologies
● Plaintext - the original clear text message

● Ciphertext or Cryptogram: - the coded message
● Cipher or cryptosystem: An encryption method or
process encompassing the algorithm, key(s) or crypto-
variable(s), and procedures used to perform encryption
and decryption
● Key or crypto-variable - info used in cipher known only
to sender/receiver
● Cryptanalysis (code-breaking) - the study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
and/or the algorithm.
Terminologies Cont’d…
● Steganography: The hiding of messages for example,

within the digital encoding of a picture or graphic. For
instance, you may encode texts as colors codes in a
picture.
● Encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
● Decipher (decrypt) - recovering plaintext from
ciphertext
● Cryptography - study of encryption
principles/methods i.e. study of
Cryptosystems/Ciphers
● Cryptology - the field of both cryptography and
cryptanalysis
Cipher classification

Enigma Machine

Rotor machine
● An Enigma machine is any of a family of related electro-mechanical rotor

cipher machines used for the encryption and decryption of secret
messages.
● Used to generate poly alphabetic ciphers (same character having many
substitutions)
● Enigma was invented by German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of
World War I .
● The early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and
adopted by military and government services of several countries — most
notably by Nazi Germany before and during World War II.
● In December 1932, the Polish Cipher Bureau first broke Germany's
military Enigma ciphers.
Classification of Cryptography
● Number of keys used

○ Hash functions: no key
○ Secret key cryptography: one key
○ Public key cryptography: two keys - public, private
● Type of encryption operations used
○ substitution / transposition / product
● Ways in which plaintext is processed (Private key crypto
systems only)
○ block / stream
Unconditional vs. Computational Security
● Unconditional security
○ No matter how much computer power is available,
the cipher cannot be broken
○ The ciphertext (no matter how much of it you have )
provides insufficient information to uniquely
determine the corresponding plaintext
● Computational security
○ The cost of breaking the cipher exceeds the value of
the encrypted info
○ The time required to break the cipher exceeds the
useful lifetime of the info
Computational Security Cont’d…
● In the modern world, most information scientists

agree that in general value of information assets
degrades over time.
Value of
information
Time
Relationship between value of information and Time
Block vs. Stream Ciphers
● Block ciphers process messages in blocks, each of which is then

en/decrypted
● Like a substitution on very big characters
○ 64-bits or more
● Stream ciphers process messages a single bit at a time when en/decrypting
(Performance overhead)
○ However, for some special application scenarios, stream ciphers can be important.
○ Eg. RC4 (the most popular symmetric key stream cipher)
○ RC4 is used in the SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security) standards
that have been defined for communication between Web browsers and servers.
○ RC4 is also used in Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) protocol that are part of the IEEE
802.11 wireless LAN standard.

Block vs. Stream Ciphers Cont’d…
● Many current ciphers are block ciphers, one of the most

widely used types of cryptographic algorithms.
● The following are examples block ciphers.
○ Data Encryption Standard (DES) – legacy block cipher
○ Triple DES (3DES) – legacy block cipher
○ Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) – the latest functional block
cipher
○ Ronald Rivest Ciphers
■ RC5
■ RC6
Cryptanalysis Schemes
● Assume encryption algorithm known
○ Ciphertext Only: A ciphertext only attack (COA) is a case in which only the
encrypted message is available for attack, but because the
language(English….) is known, a frequency analysis could be attempted. In
this situation the attacker does not know anything about the contents of the
message, and must work from ciphertext only.
○ Known Plaintext: In a known plaintext attack (KPA) both the
plaintext and matching ciphertext are available for use in
discovering the key.
○ Chosen Plaintext: A chosen plaintext attack (CPA) occurs when the
attacker gains access to the target encryption device - if, for example, it is left
unattended. The attacker then runs various pieces of plaintext through the
device for encryption. This is compared to the plaintext to attempt to derive
the key
Cryptanalysis Schemes Cont’d…
○ Chosen Ciphertext Attack: In a chosen ciphertext attack (CCA),

the cryptanalyst can choose different ciphertexts to be decrypted and
has access to the decrypted plaintext- This type of attack is generally
applicable to attacks against public key cryptosystems
○ Brute Force Attack: A brute force attack involves trying all possible
keys until hitting on the one that results in plaintext. This can involve
significant costs related to the amount of processing required to try
quadrillions (in the case of DES) of keys.
○ Birthday Attack: A birthday attack is a class of brute force attack
used against hashing functions. It is based on the "birthday
paradox.“(This states that in a group of 23 people, there is at least a 50%
probability that at least two people will share the same birthday).
Cipher Methods ( Operations)
● The main classical cipher types are transposition, substitution,
XOR (bitwise) and Vernam( One-time pads) ciphers. Product
Ciphers are combinations of transposition and substitution
ciphers.
● In contrast to the substitution cipher, the transposition
cipher simply rearranges the values within the message
to create the ciphertext.
● Known variants of transposition: Permutation(fixed
block), Columnar, Double, Myszkowski, Rail Fence,
Route( Read More ! )
○ For example, Permutation Transposition ciphers rearranges the
order of letters in a message with a fixed period of k, given a
Cipher methods-Columnar Transposition
● In this type of transposition, the message is written out in

rows of a fixed length, and then read out column by column, and
the columns are chosen in some scrambled order ( Key).
● Width of the rows and the permutation of the columns are usually defined by
a keyword.
● For example, the word HACK is of length 4 (so the rows are of length 4), and
the permutation is defined by the alphabetical order of the letters in the
keyword. In this case, the order would be “3 1 2 4”.
● Depending on whether we choose a regular ( we pad empty boxes with
constant/null characters) or an irregular columnar transposition( we don’t pad
empty boxes), any spare space is filled with nulls or left blank(Irregular) or
replaced by a constant character (Example: _).
● Finally, the message is read off in columns, in the order specified by the
keyword.
Columnar Transposition

Columnar Transposition Cont’d…
● Decryption
○ To decrypt a received ciphertext, the receiver has to perform the following steps:
○ Knowing the secret keyword, and the length of the received message, the
receiver has to work out the column lengths by dividing the cipher length
by the key length and then the table of the same size, as the one used for
encryption, should be created.
○ The ciphertext should be entered into columns, from the leftmost columns to the
rightmost column, from top to bottom.
○ The Rows should be rearranged, and put into the order defined by the
keyword.
○ The decrypted message should be read out, row by row, starting from the top
row, and from left to right.
Columnar Transposition Exercise
● Encrypt and Decrypt the following plain

text using regular columnar
transposition method using the keyword
GERMAN
defend the east wall of the castle

Columnar Transposition Cont’d…
● What if the Keyword contains recurrent letters???

○ Eg Tomato
● Myszkowski transposition ( variant of the columnar transposition)
○ Requires a keyword with recurrent letters.
○ In usual practice, subsequent occurrences of a keyword letter are
treated as if the next letter in the alphabetical order, e.g., the keyword
TOMATO yields a numeric keystring of "532164.“
○ In Myszkowski transposition, recurrent keyword letters are numbered
identically, TOMATO yielding a keystring of "432143.“
○ Plaintext columns with unique numbers are transcribed downward;
those with recurring numbers are transcribed left to right:
Myszkowski Transposition Cont’d…
● Consider the plain text

We are discovered. Flee at once
○ Keyword TOMATO
T O MA T O
4 3 21 4 3
WEARED
I S COVE
REDF LE
EATONC
EXXXXX
○ Cipher: ROFOX ACDTX EDSEE EACXX WEIVR LENEX

Columnar Transposition - Decryption
● Consider – Transposition
● Encrypting it with the keyword Zebra
Z EBR A  Key
5 3 2 4 1  Key-Order
1 2 3 4 5  Original Order
TRANS
POS I T
IONXX
● Take-off columns( original column order) 5,3,2,4,1: STX ASN ROO NIX TPI
● Key is shape ( figure i.e. how many columns) and the order (5,3,2,4,1)
● Hence , decryption makes the reverse process on slide # 24: make a 3 column rectangle (since
we have three rows in the cipher) from the cipher and then transpose the rows with the
reverse order of the columns
○ Make rows columns and columns rows( transpose)
Transposition cont’d…
● Cipher: STX ASN ROO NIX TPI
● Decryption Box
1 2 3
STX
ASN
R OO
NIX
TPI
Then re-arrange the rows now

● The order is the reverse of the encryption which is 5,3,2,4,1(how?)
T P I --------( 5th row comes first)
R O O -------( 3rd row comes second)
A S N --------( 2nd row goes third)
N I X --------( 4th row stays at forth)
S T X --------( 1st row goes fifth)
Now read the reverse of the encryption i.e. read columns top down in their order ! You will get
“TRANSPOSITIONXX
Cipher Methods –Substitution Ciphers
● Substitution ciphers replace letters or groups of letters with other

character or groups of letters.
Example
● In the Caesar cipher, each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a
letter some fixed number of positions further down the alphabet.
Formally, f : A → C where A = C and f (a) = a + k, using k = 3
● M = CRYPTOGRAPHY becomes E k(M) = FUBSXRJUDSKB
● This type of substitution is based on a monoalphabetic substitution,
because it only uses one alphabet.
● More advanced substitution ciphers use two or more alphabets, and
are referred to as polyalphabetic substitutions.
Caesar Substitution Cipher
A more general version of this cipher that allows for

any degree of shift:
 c = E( k, p ) = (p + k) mod 26
The formula for decryption would be

 p = D( k, c ) = (c - k) mod 26
In these formulas
 ‘k’ is the secret key. The symbols ’E’ and ’D’ stand for
encryption and decryption respectively, and p and c are
characters in the plain and cipher text respectively.
Cipher Methods –Polyalphabetic Substitution
Ciphers
● An advanced type of substitution cipher that uses a simple
polyalphabetic code is the Vigenère cipher.
● The cipher is implemented using the Vigenère square (or table), which is
made up of twenty-six distinct cipher alphabets.
● In the header row, the alphabet is written in its normal order. In each
subsequent row, the alphabet is shifted one letter to the right until a 26
X 26 block of letters is formed.
● There are a number of ways to use the Vigenère square
○ Could perform an encryption by simply starting in the first row and finding a
substitute for the first letter of plaintext and then moving down the rows
for each subsequent letter of plaintext.
○ With this method, the word SECURITY in plaintext becomes TGFYWOAG in
ciphertext.
Vigenère cipher - The Vigenère Square

Cipher Methods –Vigenère cipher.
● Could also use a keyword to represent the shift
○ Suppose the plaintext message was “SACK GAUL SPARE NO ONE” and the
keyword was ITALY. We thus end up withKeyword
the following:
IT ALYI TALYI TAL Y I TA Plain text
SACKGAULSPARENOONE
● To perform the substitution, start with the first combination of
keyword and message letters, “IS”.
● Use the keyword letter to locate the column, and the message letter
to find the row, and then look for the letter at their intersection.
● Thus, for column “I” and row “S,” you will find the ciphertext letter “A”.
● The final cipher text is : ATCVEINLDNIKEYMWGE

Cipher Methods -XOR
● The exclusive OR operation (XOR) is a function of Boolean

algebra in which two bits are compared, and if the two bits
are identical, the result is a binary 0.
● If the two bits are not the same, the result is a binary 1.
● XOR encryption is a very simple symmetric cipher that is
used in many applications where security is not a defined
requirement.
● The XOR encryption method should not be used by itself
when an organization is transmitting or storing sensitive
data – very simple to both implement and break!
Example of an XOR Encryption
● Consider the word “CAT”

○ ASCII binary representation of the plaintext is
“01000011 01000001 01010100”
○ In order to encrypt the plaintext, a key value should
be selected , let’s say “V”
○ In this case, the bit pattern for the letter “V”
(01010110) is used, and is repeated for each character
to be encrypted in the plain text, left to right.

XOR Encryption Cont’d…
● Performing the XOR operation on the two bit streams (the

plaintext and the key) produces the result shown.
● Actual encryption algorithms used to protect data typically use

the XOR operator as part of a more complex encryption
method( process)
Cipher methods -Vernam cipher (One-time pads)
● Also known as the one-time pad, the Vernam cipher, was
developed by AT&T
● Uses a set of characters( pre-shared, the same size as, or
longer than, the message being sent) only one time for
each encryption process (hence the name one-time pad).
● Problems of secure key distribution have made them
impractical for most applications
● The “pad” in the name comes from the days of manual
encryption and decryption, where paper pads were used
to prepare the key values for each ciphering session by
hand and bound into an easy-to-use form.
Vernam(One-time pads) cont’d…
● To perform the Vernam cipher encryption operation, the pad

values are added to numeric values that represent the plaintext
that needs to be encrypted.
● The resulting sum for that character is then converted back to a
ciphertext letter for transmission. If the sum of the two values
exceeds 26, then 26 is subtracted from the total.( Modulo
Operator)
● One-time pads are at least theoretically unbreakable in that the
encrypted message (i.e., the ciphertext) provides no information
about the original message to a cryptanalyst (except the
maximum possible length of the message)
● One-time pads are unbreakable codes:
○ Use a truly random key as long as the message to be encoded
○ XOR the message with the key a bit at a time

● Code is unbreakable because
○ Key could be anything
○ Without knowing key, message could be anything with the correct number of bits in it
● Difficulty: distributing key is as hard as distributing message.
● Difficulty: generating truly random bits.
○ Can’t use computer random number generator! Not truly random
○ May use physical processes( to ensure true randomness)

■ Radioactive decay
■ Leaky diode ( the current approach and is built into new Intel x86 CPUs)
■ Lava lamp
● Look at the following example.
● Rows three and four in this example show, respectively, the one-time pad text
that was chosen for this encryption and the one-time pad value
● The pad value, like the plaintext value ( the value of “SACK GAUL SPARE NO
ONE”), is derived from the position of each pad text letter in the alphabet.
● Decryption: Using the pad values and the ciphertext, the decryption process
works as follows: “Y” becomes the number 25, from which we subtract the pad
value for the first letter of the message, 06. This yields a value of 19, or the
letter “S.” .

Product ciphers
● By themselves, substitution and transposition ciphers are
relatively insecure.
● By combining these operations, we can produce a more secure
cipher.
○ This is how DES works –the encryption standard for most
network nodes.
● For a message M, Product Cipher is obtained as M -> Sub(M) ->
Trans(Sub(M)), where sub= substitution operation and trans =
transposition operation
○ Might go through multiple rounds (DES for instance goes
through 14 rounds.)

Private-key cryptography
● Private-key cryptography (also called symmetric-key
cryptography) refers to encryption methods in which
both the sender and receiver share the same key
↓
● This was the only kind of encryption publicly known
until June 1976 (quite old)
↓
● The modern study of private-key ciphers relates
mainly to the study of block ciphers and stream
ciphers and to their applications
Private Key Block ciphers
● Block ciphers are private key ciphers operating on fixed-length
groups of bits, called blocks, with an unvarying transformation. It
consists of two paired algorithms, one for encryption, E, and the
other for decryption, D
○ Both algorithms accept two inputs: an input block of size n
bits and a key of size k bits, yielding an n-bit output block.
○ For any one fixed key, decryption is the inverse function of
encryption,
so that Ek (M) =C and Dk (C) = M.

Cryptography-Main principles
Properties of encryption function

It should be computationally infeasible to find the
key K when given the plaintext P and associated
ciphertext C= EK (p)
It should also be computationally infeasible to find
another key K’ such that EK(p) = EK’(p).

What do intruders do?
Intruders and eavesdroppers

 Eavesdropping (listening/spying)
 An intruder may try to read the message
 If it is well encrypted the intruder will not know the content
 However, just the fact that the intruder knows there is
communication may be a threat
 Modification
 Modifying a plaintext is easy, but modifying encrypted messages is
more difficult
 Insertion of messages
 Inserting new message into a ciphertext is difficult
Intruders and eavesdroppers

Types of Cryptosystems
There are two fundamentally different

cryptographic systems but used in combination
Symmetric cryptosystem (Private key)
Asymmetric cryptosystem (Public key)

Symmetric Cryptosystem
Also called secret-key/private-key cryptosystem

The same key is used to encrypt and decrypt a message
 P = DK [EK (P) ]
Have been used for centuries in a variety of forms
The key has to be kept secret
The key has to be communicated using a secure channel
They are still in use in combination with public key cryptosystems due to some of
their advantages
Q#. If you have n communicating entities, how many secret keys do you need, to
allow each party communicate to each other confidentially? (Mesh Topology in
networking, what is the number of lines needed to connect the n nodes ?)
Examples of Symmetric Key ciphers
● DES- (56 bit key length- block size 64 bits)- from IBM
● RC4 (1-2048 bit key)-stream cipher
● RC5 (128-256 key length, block size of 32, 64 or 128 bits)-from Ronal Rivest
● Serpent (128-256 bits Key length, block size 128 bit, very strong – from
Anderson, Biham& Knudsen
● Rijndael (128-256 key length and 128 Block size) – this is the best choice ( Known
as AES) , it has the option for 192 bit key length , but this key is rarely used.- from
Daemen and Rijmen
● Triple DES(3DES-Encrypt K1-Decrypty K2 –Encrypt K1) (168 bits key length,
64 bit block size) - From IBM
● Twofish (128-256 key length) very strong and widely used. –from Bruce
Schneier
Asymmetric Cryptosystem
Also called public-key cryptosystem

 keys for encryption and decryption are different but form a unique pair
 P = DKD [EKE (P) ]
 Only one of the keys need to be private while the other can be public
Invented by Diffie and Hellman in 1976
Uses Mathematical functions whose inverse is not known by Mathematicians
of the day
It is a revolutionary concept since it avoids the need of using a secure channel
to communicate the key
It has made cryptography available for the general public and made many of
today’s on-line application feasible
Example of Public key Crypto System-RSA
RSA is from R. Rivest, A. Shamir and L. Adleman

Principle:
 No mathematical method is yet known to efficiently find the prime
factors of large numbers: Ex: 2100= 2x2x3x5x5x7
In RSA, the private and public keys are constructed from very large prime
numbers (consisting of hundred of decimal digits)
One of the keys can be made public
Breaking RSA is equivalent to finding the prime factors of a large number:
this is known to be computationally infeasible.
However, the person who has produced the keys from the prime number
can easily decrypt the messages.
Basic principles in Public Key Cryptography
The strength of Public Key Cryptography today is based on the

difficulty of
Prime Factorization of very large number about 2048 bits long ( RSA for
instance)
Computing Discrete Logarithms
Few Schemes are also based on
Elliptic Curve method ( elliptic curve cryptography)
Other Schemes have failed such as
Knapsack Algorithms – Ronald Rivest broke it promptly for a 1000$ prize.
Other approaches are still in the research/experimental stage
Quantum cryptography. ( based on light pulses-photons)
Hash functions
Hash functions are mathematical algorithms that generate a message

summary, or digest, that can be used to confirm the identity of a
specific message and to confirm that the message has not been
altered.
One application of cryptography in distributed systems is the use of
hash functions (to maintain integrity)
A hash function H takes a message m of arbitrary length and produces
a bit string h, h= H (m)
When the hash value h is sent with the message m, it enables to
determine whether m has been modified or not
It is similar to cyclic-redundancy check (CRC) and Check sum
Hash Functions cont’d…
Properties of hash functions

 One-way function: It is computationally
infeasible to find m that corresponds to a
known output h (No reverse function)
 Function such that given formula for f(x)
easy to evaluate y = f(x)
But, given y it is computationally infeasible to
find x
Hash Functions cont’d…
 Collision resistance
 Weak-collision resistance: Given m and H, it is computationally infeasible to find m’ ≠ m such
that H(m) = H(m’)
 Strong-collision resistance: Given H, it is computationally infeasible to find any two different
input values m and m’, such that H(m) = H(m’)
 Collision resistance doesn't mean that no collisions exist; simply that they are hard to
find.
 If a hash function produces N bits of output, an attacker who computes "only" 2N/2 hash
operations on random input is likely to find two matching outputs. Or √n is roughly the
number you need to have a 50% chance of a match with n items
 The number of bits used in the hash algorithm is a measurement of the strength of the
algorithm against collision attacks (Birthday attack)
 SHA-128 ( chance of collision is 1 in 2 64 ), and so on.
 SHA-256
 SHA-512
Public-key Cryptosystem…
Which one of the encryption or decryption key is made

public depends on the use of the key
 If Hana wants to send a confidential message to Ahmed
 She encrypts the message using Ahmed’s public key
 Send the message
 Ahmed will then decode it using his own private key
 On the other hand, if Ahmed needs to make sure that a
message sent by Hana really comes from her, how can he
assure that?

Public-key Cryptosystem
Using digital signature

 Hana has to first encrypt a digital signature using her private
key
 Then encrypt the message (signature included) with Ahmed’s
public key
 Sends the encrypted message to Ahmed
 Ahmed decrypts the message using his private key
 Ahmed then decrypts the signature using Hana’s public key
 If successful, he insures that it comes from Hana
Digital Signatures

Digital Signature for Message Integrity and
Confidentiality
Confidentiality insures that messages cannot be intercepted and
read by eavesdroppers
Message integrity insures that messages are protected against
modification
Principles of Digital Signature
 User A signs digitally a message m using “back Ward” cryptographic hash
of the message m with the private key of A and attach it to the message
m.
 Anybody can then decrypt A’s digital signature using A’s public key and
compare it with the cryptographic hash of the message m to verify that
m was signed by A and m was not altered.
Digital Certificate
● A digital certificate is an electronic document or container
file that contains a key value and identifying information
about the entity that controls the key.
● The certificate is often issued and certified by a third
party, usually a certificate authority (CA).
● A digital signature is attached to the digital certificate.
● Unlike digital signatures, which help authenticate the
origin of a message, digital certificates authenticate the
cryptographic key that is embedded in the certificate.
● Digital Certificates are often issued by Certificate
Authorities (CA)
Certificate Authorities
Rank Issuer Usage Market share
1 Comodo 6.1% 37.2%
2 Symantec 5% 30.2%
3 GoDaddy 2.2% 13.3%
4 GlobalSign 1.7% 10.4%
5 DigiCert 0.5% 3.1%
6 StartCom 0.4% 2.2%
7 Entrust 0.1% 0.8%
8 Verizon 0.1% 0.7%
9 Trustwave 0.1% 0.6%
10 Secom 0.1% 0.6%
11 Unizeto 0.1% 0.4%
12 QuoVadis < 0.1% 0.1%
13 Deutsche Telekom < 0.1% 0.1%
14 Network Solutions < 0.1% 0.1%
15 SwissSign < 0.1% 0.1%

Usage of Certificate Authorities

Digital Signature for assurance
Consider the situation where Bob has just sold Alice

something for 500 Birr through a deal that is made by E-
mail
Alice sends an E-mail accepting to pay 500 Birr
Two issues need to be taken care of in addition to authentication
 Alice needs to be assured that Bob will not modify the amount and
show that Alice promised to pay more than 500 Birr (Say 5000)
 Bob needs to be assured that Alice will not deny that she sent the
message

Digital signature for assurance….
If Alice signs the message digitally, the two issues will

be solved
There are several ways to place digital signatures

One popular way is to use public-key cryptosystem such
as RSA

Digital Signature Using Public Key
Cryptosystem
● Notation: KX- : Private key of X
KX+ : Public key of X
When Alice sends her message m to Bob, she encrypts it
with her private key KA-(m)
If she wants to keep the message content a secret, she
can use Bob’s public key and send KB+(m, KA-(m))
Alice is protected against modification by Bob since if Bob
produces m’, he has to find KA-(m’)
Digital Signature with Public key

Digital Signature Using Message Digest
Hash/Message Digest: Short “signature” of the message, 128–512 bits,

that depend on entire message
It is extremely improbable that unequal messages have same hash value
( High Collision Resistance)
● Example: MD5 (Message Digest version 5), SHA-1, SHA-2
h = H (m) is sent along with m, where H is a cryptographic hash function
KA-(H(m)) (or KB+(m, KA-(H(m)))) is sent so that Bob knows that it comes
from Alice by decrypting it
Bob hashes the message m and compares it with h that he has received
from Alice

Digital Signature Using Message Digest …

Key distribution Issue
Even with public-key cryptosystems and digital signatures, we still

have the problem of authentication: binding users to keys.
Early days articles envisioned phonebook-like database with Name
and Public Key entries.
○ Problem: How secure is that database itself?(RSA

Database Hacked!!)
Attacker can put in his own key for someone else, and start signing fake
contracts (and even cheques!).
Maybe we can secure the phonebook, but then it kills the idea of keys
widely and easily (publicly) available.
Key distribution Problem
● Distribution of a key is a difficult matter!
● For a symmetric cryptosystem, the initial key must be communicated along a
secured channel(?)
● For public key, we need a body that certifies the public key is that of the party
we need to communicate with
● Solution: Certification/Certificate Authority (CA) that signs (certifies) the public
key
The critical thing is that the name in the digital certificate must
match the alleged name in the communication.
Common solution to public key distribution today is to have trusted
third party to sign the user’s public encryption key. - Certification
Authority (CA). But how many CAs?, Which CA is Trust Worthy ?
Answer? – later on PKI !!
Summary on Cryptosystem
● Except in digital certificates, asymmetric key encryption in its pure form is not
widely used, but it is often used in conjunction with symmetric key encryption
—thus, as part of a hybrid encryption system.
● Therefore, in practice, hybrid cryptography systems use public-key
cryptosystem to establish session key for private key crypto system.
● The most common hybrid system is based on the Diffie-Hellman key exchange,
which is a method for exchanging private keys using public key encryption.
● Diffie-Hellman key exchange uses asymmetric encryption to exchange session
keys for symmetric key systems
● Advantage of private/symmetric key cryptography is that it provides better
secrecy and performance but needs prearranged key exchange.
● Advantage of public-key cryptography is that it allows for secrecy between two
parties who have not arranged in advance to have a shared key and the
disadvantage is overhead and low speed.

Access Control
Access Control: Generalized View
 Controlling access of Subjects to Objects
Access control: Verifying access rights to

prevent misuse of resources
Authorization: Granting access rights

Access Control
Through the user access control procedure (log on), a user can
be identified to the system
Associated with each user, there can be a profile that specifies
permissible operations and accesses
Privileges or user rights provide the authorization (legitimacy)
to do things that affect the entire system.
The operating system can enforce rules based on the user
profile
The focus here is about Logical Access Control Models
Implementation can be done in Operating systems, Firewalls….etc
Access Control Models- Mechanisms
In general, all access control approaches rely on as the following
mechanisms:
Identification: is a mechanism whereby an unverified entity—called a
supplicant—that seeks access to a resource proposes a label by which they are
known to the system
Authentication: is the process of validating a supplicant’s purported
identity(Something a supplicant knows or Something a supplicant has or
Something a supplicant is )
Authorization: is the matching of an authenticated entity to a list of
information assets and corresponding access levels. This list is usually an ACL or
access control matrix
Accountability: also known as auditability, ensures that all actions on a system
—authorized or unauthorized—can be attributed to an authenticated identity.
Accountability is most often accomplished by means of system logs and
database journals
Access Control Model
General access control model

 Access control matrix (ACM)
 Access control list (ACL)
 Capability list (CL)
Basic elements of ACM
 Subject: An entity capable of accessing objects, the concept of subject equates
with that of process
 Object: Anything to which access is controlled (e.g. files, programs, memory
segments)
 Access right: The way (mode of operation) in which an object is accessed by a
subject (e.g. read, write, execute)
Access Control Matrix
In the ACM, each subject is represented by a row and each

object as a column
ACM [s, o] lists precisely which operations subject s can
request to be carried out on object o
The drawback of this system is that the Matrix will have
many empty entries
 Another widely used approach is to use Access Control Lists in
which each object maintains a list of access rights of subjects
 Another approach is to give each subject a Capability List (access
rights to the object) that are digitally signed
Access Control Matrix ….

Access Control List
● Decomposition of the matrix by columns
An access control list lists users and their permitted

access right for an Object
The list may contain a default or public entry
Access Control List
 Each object has a list attached to it

 List has
 Protection domain
 User name File1 File2
 Group of users
 Other
 Access rights
 Read elm: <R,W> elm: <R,X>
 Write znm: <R> uber: <R,W>
 Execute (?) root: <R,W,X> root: <R,W>
 Others? all: <R>
 No entry for domain => no rights for
that domain
 Operating system checks permissions
when access is needed
Capability List
● Decomposition of the matrix by rows
A capability ticket specifies authorized objects and

operations for a user ( The ticket is digitally signed)
Each user has a number of such tickets

Capability List
● Each process has a capability

list
Process Process
● List has one entry per object A B
the process can access
○ Object name
○ Object permissions
File1: <R,W> File2: <R,W>
● Objects not listed are not File2: <R> File4: <R,W,X>
accessible File3: <R,W,X> File7: <W>
● How are these secured? File9: <R,W>
○ Kept in kernel
○ Cryptographically secured
Access Control List (a) Vs. Capability List (b)

Protection Domain
An Access Control List or a Capability List can still become too

large
One way of reducing ACLs is to make use of protection domains
Domains can be created based on user, process and procedure.
A protection domain is a set of (object, access rights)
Requests for carrying out an operation are always issued within a
domain
A user should be a member of a domain that has the required
access rights to invoke an object.

Protection Domains
• Three protection domains
• Each lists objects with permitted
operations
• Domains can share objects &
permissions
• Objects can have different
permissions in different domains
• There need be no overlap between
object permissions in different
domains
File3 [R] File3 [W]
File1 [R]
File4 [RWX] Printer [W] Screen1
File2 [RW]
File5 [RW] [W]
Mouse [R]
Domain 1 Domain 2 Domain 3

Access control-Multilevel Security
Multilevel security (E.g.. Bell-La Padula )

 Definition of multiple categories or levels of data
 Protection of data and resources on the basis of levels of security
 Users can be granted access to certain categories of data
A multilevel secure system must enforce:

 No read up: A subject can only read an object of less or equal
security level (Simple Security Property)
 No write down: A subject can only write into an object of greater
or equal security level

Bell-La Padula Multilevel Security Model
• Processes(subjects), objects have

security level 4 5 E 6
• Simple security principle
• Process(subject) at level k can only
read objects at levels k or lower 3 3 C 4 D
• The integrity property

Legend
• Process(subject) at level k can only A writes 4
write objects at levels k or higher 2 B 2
B 2
• These prevent information from Process Object
leaking from higher levels to
Read
lower levels 1 1 A write

Trusted System: Reference Monitor
Reference Monitor
 Controlling element in the hardware and operating
system that regulates the access of subjects(processes)
to objects on the basis of security parameters
 The monitor has access to a file (security kernel
database)
 The monitor enforces the security rules (no read up, no
write down)

Trusted System: Reference Monitor Concept

Trusted System: Reference Monitor Concept
User
All system calls go Process User
through the “A”
space
reference monitor
for security
checking
Kernel
Reference monitor
Space
Trusted computing base
Operating system kernel

Trusted System: Reference Monitor Properties
Properties of the Reference Monitor

 Complete mediation: Security rules are enforced on
every access( No other backdoor)
 Isolation: The reference monitor and database are
protected from unauthorized modification
 Verifiability: The reference monitor’s correctness must
be provable(through Audit File for example)
● A system that can provide such verifications (properties)
is referred to as a trusted system
Firewall
It is more feasible to secure a community of users by putting some

control at the entrance rather than trying to secure every host
This is done in the real world
 Countries protect themselves at their borders
 Neighborhoods protect the whole neighborhood
A firewall acts to provide secured access between two networks
A firewall solution assumes the most dangerous threats are found
outside own network- is this so?
A firewall may be implemented as a standalone hardware device
or in the form of a software
Firewall definition
A firewall is a part of a computer system or network

designed to block unauthorized access while
permitting authorized communications.
It is a device or set of devices that is configured to
permit or deny network transmissions based on a set
of rules and other criteria.

Firewall Design goals
All traffic from inside to outside must pass through the

firewall (physically blocking all access to the local
network except via the firewall)
Only authorized traffic (defined by the local security
policy) will be allowed to pass
The firewall itself is immune to penetration (use of
trusted system with a secure operating system)

Firewall Features
General Firewall Types

 Firewalls fall into five major processing-mode
categories:
 Packet-filtering firewalls,
 Application gateways,
 Circuit gateways,
 MAC layer firewalls, and
 Hybrids.

Firewall Features
Packet Filtering Firewalls(Network Layer)

 Makes decision based on the source and destination addresses, and
ports in individual IP packets.- There are three types of packet
filtering
 Static packet filtering
 Blocks traffic between specific service ports
 E.g. *:80, *:21, *:23, *:3306…….etc.
 Dynamic packet filtering
 Maintains a connection table in order to monitor requests and replies
 Stateful inspection
 Compares certain key parts(content type/MIME type) of the packet to a
database of trusted information
Firewall Features Cont’d…
The Application Gateway

 It is a firewall that operate at the Application Layer of
the OSI
 Also known as an application-level firewall or application
firewall, is frequently installed on a dedicated computer,
separate from the filtering router, but is commonly used
in conjunction with a filtering router
 Also known as a proxy server since it runs special
software that acts as a proxy for a service request
Firewall Features cont’d…
Application Layer
 Hosts running through proxy servers
 Logging and access control are done through software
components
 Proxy Services
 Application that mediates traffic between a protected network
and the Internet
 Able to understand the application protocol being utilized and
implement protocol specific security
 Protocols include: FTP, HTTP, Telnet etc
Circuit Gateways
 The circuit gateway firewall operates at the
transport layer.
 Filter transport layer protocol (such as TCP/UDP)
specific requests.
 They accomplish this by creating tunnels connecting
specific processes or systems on each side of the
firewall( end-to-end), and then allowing only
authorized traffic, such as a specific type of TCP
connection for authorized users, in these tunnels
MAC layer firewalls

 MAC layer firewalls are designed to operate at the
media access control sub-layer of the data link layer
(Layer 2) of the OSI network model
 MAC layer firewalls link the addresses of specific host
computers to ACL entries that identify the specific
types of packets that can be sent to each host, and
block all other traffic

Hybrid firewalls
 combine the elements of other types of firewalls—
that is, the elements of packet filtering and proxy
services, or of packet filtering and circuit gateways.
 A hybrid firewall system may actually consist of two
separate firewall devices; but which are connected so
that they can work together.

Types of Firewalls on OSI Model

Firewall Topology
Bastion host
 Simple
 Suitable for those networks that do not offer internet services to the
public
 Not suitable if the network has a web server or an Email server

Firewall Topology …
Screened subnet
 A single firewall with three network cards
 Commonly referred to as a triple homed firewall
 Provides a solution that allows organizations to offer services to the
public securely
 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) is separated from both the Internet and the
trusted network by the firewall

Demilitarized zone
 Neither part of the internal network nor part of the
Internet
 It prevents outside users from getting direct access
to a server that has company data
 It is a computer host or small network
 Users of the public network outside the company
can access only the DMZ host(s)
Dual firewalls
 Most secure
 Most expensive
 Additional layer of security

Firewall remarks cont’d…
In a real-world organizational context, we need
create dual-firewalled network as follows.
INTERNET
-------------- Outer firewall ……………
 Web server
 Mail server DMZ
 DNS server
---------------Inner firewall……………..
 corporate-data subnet
 customer-data subnet
 internal mail server INTRANET
 internal DNS server
 development subnet
Intranet, DMZ and the Internet

Intrusion Detections Systems (IDS)/Intrusion
Prevention Systems (IPS) IDPS
● Security policies are either prohibitive(Firewall) or
permissive (IDS)
● Firewalls generally don’t detect internal attacks or attacks
once the system is compromised.
● An intrusion occurs when an attacker attempts to gain entry
into or disrupt the normal operations of an information
system, almost always with the intent to do harm.
● Today, there are two types of technological tools available to
handle intrusion; Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) and
Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPSs).

IDPS Cont’d…
An IDS works like a burglar alarm in that it detects a violation (some system
activity analogous to an opened or broken window) and activates an alarm.
This alarm can be audible and/or visual (producing noise and lights,
respectively), or it can be silent (an e-mail message or pager alert).
An ID system gathers and analyzes information from various areas within a
computer or a network to identify possible security breaches
It detects both intrusions and misuse
Regardless of how an alert is detected, the administrator groups all the
alerts into one of four categories.
True positives (correct escalation of important events).
False positives (incorrect escalation of unimportant events)—this is IDS Error.
True negatives (correct ignorance of unimportant events).
False negatives (incorrect ignorance of important events) -this is IDS Error.

IDPS Cont’d…
Intrusion detection functions include

 Monitoring and analyzing both user and system activities
 Analyzing system configurations and vulnerabilities
 Assessing system and file integrity
 Ability to recognize patterns typical of attacks
 Analysis of abnormal activity patterns
 Tracking user policy violations
Freeware IDS exist e.g. snort (www.snort.org)
Also packet sniffing can be done via tcpdump/Windump at
Routers
IDPS Cont’d…
A current extension of IDS technology is the

intrusion prevention system (IPS), which can
detect an intrusion and prevent that intrusion
from successfully attacking the organization by
means of an active response.
Because the two systems often coexist, the

combined term intrusion detection and
prevention system (IDPS) is generally used to
describe current anti-intrusion technologies

IDPS- the general process
Four sequence of processes can help in handling intrusion
Intrusion prevention consists of activities that deter an
intrusion.
Intrusion detection consists of procedures and systems that
identify an intrusion into a system.
Intrusion reaction encompasses the actions an organization
takes when an intrusion is detected. These actions seek to limit
the loss from an intrusion and return operations to a normal
state as rapidly as possible.
Intrusion correction activities finalize the restoration of
operations to a normal state and seek to identify the source
and method of the intrusion Leading to Intrusion prevention
IDPS Elements
Primary assumptions:
○ System activities are observable
○ Normal and intrusive activities have distinct evidence
Intrusion Detection Approaches
○ Modeling
■ Features: evidences extracted from audit data
■ Analysis( detection) approach: piecing the evidences together
● Signature-Based IDPS: Misuse detection (a.k.a. signature-based- based on
predefined knowledge base of intrusive activities)
● Statistical Anomaly-Based IDPS ( based on statistical measurement and analysis of
activities)
● Stateful Protocol Analysis IDPS.(based on deep packet inspection- stateful
inspection at the application protocols )
○ Development and maintenance
■ Hand-coding of “expert knowledge”- Rule based
■ Automatic Learning based on audit data(Security Audit)- Machine Learning Methods
can be applied
○ Deployment: Network-based or Host-based
IDPS Elements Cont’d…
● Possible types of IDS errors:

○ False positive (unauthorized user let in)
○ False negative (authorized user denied access)
○ Subversion error (compromised the system from
detecting intrusion)

Dealing with Intruders
● Intruders can be external or internal
○ External intruders are hackers or crackers
○ Internal intruders are more common and very dangerous

● Security policy should state what steps will be taken to handle intrusions
● Some Approaches are listed below.
○ Block and ignore
■ Simplest tactic for handling intrusions
■ Block the intruder and address the vulnerability
■ Don’t take any further action

Dealing with Intruders cont’d…
● Block and investigate
○ Block the intruder and address the vulnerability
○ Collect evidence and try to determine intruder’s identity
○ Investigate
● Honeypot (bait the intruder)
○ Allow the intruder to access a part of your network
○ Try to catch the intruder while he/she explores
○ This is a potentially dangerous approach
■ The intruder does have at least partial access
■ Crackers may become interested in your site
Firewall vs. IDS/IPS(IDPS)
Firewall
 Active filtering
 Fail-close protocol
 Prohibitive
Network IDS
 Passive monitoring
 Fail-open protocol
 Permissive

Authentication
Making sure that users are who they say they are.
Users wish to access services on servers
Three threats exist:
 User pretend to be another user
 User alter the network address of a workstation
 User eavesdrop on exchanges and use a replay attack
Examples of Authentication technologies
 Password
 Host-Based (ex. IP)
 Physical token (ex. Smartcard)
 Biometrics
Important: from the computer’s point of view…
 Anyone who can duplicate your ID is you
 Fooling a computer isn’t all that hard…
Three classic ways to prove your Identity
Something You Know:
 known secrets
 Ex. your password- major security vulnerability lies in where default password
are left unchanged
 Salting passwords can help secure passwords better. ( pass– salt “aa”-result
passaa)
Something You Have:
 Physically owned stuffs
 Ex. keys, token, badges, Smart cards …etc.
Something You Are:
 Physiological/Behavioral Trait
 Ex. fingerprint, handprint, retina pattern, voice pattern, keystroke pattern … etc.
Two-factor authentication is a combination of any two of the three
classical methods to
10/10/2023
prove your identity
Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 115
Public-key Infrastructure (PKI)
● Having a single CA to issue all the world’s Certificates is
practically impossible.
● Having multiples CAs, all run by the same organization, sinning
certificates with their private key makes a little sense. But
having the CA’s Private key on servers around the world is risky
as the private key can be leaked, stolen…etc.
● What is more, which organization manages the CAs?( have the
trust of all CAs?, legitimate and trustworthy?)
● For these reasons, a different way of certifying public keys has
evolved. - PKI
● PKI- is an integrated system of software, encryption
methodologies, protocols, legal agreements, and third-party
services that enables users to communicate securely
PKI- Cont’d…
● PKI systems are based on public-key cryptosystems and

include digital certificates and certificate authorities
(CAs).
● Digital Certificates are public-key container files that
allow computer programs to validate the key and
identify to whom it belongs.
● PKI and the Digital Certificate registries they contain
enable the protection of information assets by making
verifiable digital certificates readily available to
business applications.
PKI- Cont’d…
● Making verifiable digital certificates readily available allows

the applications to implement several of the key characteristics
of information security and to integrate these characteristics
into business processes across an organization.
● These processes include the following:
○ Authentication
○ Integrity
○ Privacy
○ Authorization
○ Nonrepudiation
Public Key Infrastructure - Components
● A typical PKI solution protects the transmission and reception of secure
information by integrating the following components:
○ A Certificate Authority (CA), which issues, manages, authenticates, signs, and
revokes users’ digital certificates.
○ A Registration Authority (RA), which operates under the trusted collaboration
of the certificate authority and can handle day-to-day certification functions,
such as verifying registration information, generating end-user keys, revoking
certificates, and validating user certificates.
○ Certificate Directories, which are central locations for certificate storage that
provide a single access point for administration and distribution.
○ Management Protocols, which organize and manage the communications
among CAs, RAs, and end users.
○ Policies and Procedures, which assist an organization in the application and
management of certificates, in the formalization of legal liabilities and
limitations, and in actual business use.
PKI Certificate Hierarchy
● The top level CA, the Root, certifies the second

level, which are often called Regional
Authorities(RAs)( sometimes (Registration
Authorities), called so because they might cover a
particular region, such as a country.
● RAs in turn certify the real CAs which issue the
X.509 Certificates to individuals and organization.
● This linkage from the root to individual certificates
is called Chain of Trust /Certification Path.
● X.509 is the ITU standard for describing
Certificates all over the internet
PKI Certificate Hierarchy Cont’d…

X.509 Certificate Description standard

Authentication in Network based Env’t
● Without knowledge of the identity of an individual requesting an
operation, it is often difficult to decide whether the operation should be
allowed.
● Traditional authentication methods are not suitable for use in computer
networks where attackers can monitor network traffic and intercept
passwords.
● The use of strong authentication methods that do not disclose passwords
is imperative.
● Different Methods Exist; Kerberos, KDC, Challenge-Response
Protocol(Shared Secret key), Public Key Cryptography etc.
● Shared Secret keys can be established between complete strangers using
Diffie-Hellman key Exchange.
● The Kerberos authentication system supports strong authentication on
such networks.
Authentication in Network based….
● When using authentication based on cryptography, an attacker listening

to the network gains no information that would enable it to falsely claim
another's identity. Kerberos is the most commonly used example of this
type of authentication technology.
● The protocol was named after the character Kerberos (or Cerberus)
from Greek mythology which was a monstrous three-headed guard dog
of Hades( King of the Underworld)
● The Analogy is that there are three
Components, client, server and the Key
Distribution center
Kerberos- Authentication Service
Kerberos provides centralized authentication server to

authenticate users to servers and servers to users
(Network-based)
 Kerberos is used with open systems and Networks
 Relies on conventional encryption, making no use of public-key
encryption
 Two versions: version 4 and 5
 Version 4 makes use of DES, and version 5 uses AES
 Kerberos never transmits passwords but rather uses cryptographic
keys known as tickets. The tickets are used to protect messages to
and from you.
 Passwords stored in a highly secured key server
( KDC).

Kerberos authentication

Kerberos Authentication

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Chapter 4

● The word Cryptography comes from the Greek words

● Plaintext - the original clear text message

● Steganography: The hiding of messages for example,

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● An Enigma machine is any of a family of related electro-mechanical rotor

● Number of keys used

● In the modern world, most information scientists

● Block ciphers process messages in blocks, each of which is then

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 12

● Many current ciphers are block ciphers, one of the most

○ Chosen Ciphertext Attack: In a chosen ciphertext attack (CCA),

● In this type of transposition, the message is written out in

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 18

● Encrypt and Decrypt the following plain

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 20

● What if the Keyword contains recurrent letters???

● Consider the plain text

○ Cipher: ROFOX ACDTX EDSEE EACXX WEIVR LENEX

Then re-arrange the rows now

● Substitution ciphers replace letters or groups of letters with other

A more general version of this cipher that allows for

The formula for decryption would be

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 28

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● The exclusive OR operation (XOR) is a function of Boolean

● Consider the word “CAT”

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 31

● Performing the XOR operation on the two bit streams (the

● Actual encryption algorithms used to protect data typically use

● To perform the Vernam cipher encryption operation, the pad

○ XOR the message with the key a bit at a time

○ May use physical processes( to ensure true randomness)

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 36

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Properties of encryption function

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 40

Intruders and eavesdroppers

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 42

There are two fundamentally different

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 43

Also called secret-key/private-key cryptosystem

Also called public-key cryptosystem

RSA is from R. Rivest, A. Shamir and L. Adleman

The strength of Public Key Cryptography today is based on the

Hash functions are mathematical algorithms that generate a message

Properties of hash functions

Which one of the encryption or decryption key is made

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 52

Using digital signature

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Consider the situation where Bob has just sold Alice

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 59

If Alice signs the message digitally, the two issues will

There are several ways to place digital signatures

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Hash/Message Digest: Short “signature” of the message, 128–512 bits,

10/10/2023 Chapt. 4 Security Technologies 63

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