BASIC CONCEPTS OF

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamic Systems and Control Volume
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships among heat, work,
temperature, density and energy. Any physical system will spontaneously
approach an equilibrium that can be described by specifying its properties.
Thermodynamics focuses largely on how a heat transfer is related to
various energy changes within a physical system undergoing a
thermodynamic process. Such processes usually result in work being done
by the system and are guided by the laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics comes from the Greek words, Therme, means
"heat", and Dynamis, meaning "work". Literally, thermodynamics means
heat and work. There are three principal laws of thermodynamics. Each law
leads to the definition of thermodynamic properties which help us to
understand and predict the operation of a physical system.
 Thermodynamics also involves with
energy transformation such as conversion
of heat into work, chemical energy to
electrical energy, or of mechanical energy
to electrical energy.
A Thermodynamic system is a
certain quantity of matter or the space
which is under thermodynamic study or
analysis. The imaginary outer edge of the
system is called its boundary. Examples of
system are engine, refrigerator, air-
conditioner, washing machine, heat
exchange, a condenser, etc.
Types of System
1) Open system: An Open system is
a system in which the transfer of
mass as well as energy can take
place across its boundary. One
example of an open system is an
engine. In this case we provide fuel
to engine, and it produces power
which is given out, thus there is
exchange of mass as well as energy.
The engine also emits heat which is
exchanged with the surroundings.
2. Closed System: A Closed system is a
system in which the transfer of energy
takes place across its boundary with
the surrounding, but no transfer of
mass takes place. A closed system is a
fixed mass system. The fluid like air or
gas being compressed in the piston
and cylinder arrangement is an
example of the closed system. In this
case the mass of the gas remains
constant, but it can get heated or
cooled.
Control Volume. Control volume is defined as a fixed
region in space where one studies the masses and
energies crossing the boundaries of the region and very
useful in analyzing fluid flow problems. Control volume
is another method of approach which focused on the
observation of flow. The boundary of a control volume
for fluid flow is usually taken as the physical boundary of
the part through which the flow is occurring. The control
volume concept is used in fluid dynamics applications,
utilizing the continuity, momentum, and energy
principles. Once the control volume and its boundary are
established, the various forms of energy crossing the
boundary with the fluid can be dealt with in equation
form to solve the fluid problem. We perform a balance of
mass, momentum and energy that flow across the
boundary and deduce the changes that could take place
to properties of flow within the control volume.
Adiabatic System. In an adiabatic system, mass can cross the
control surface, but energy in the form of heat is not allowed to
across the control surface of the system. This is a special case of an
open system. Energy in other forms can enter and leave the system.
Examples of adiabatic systems are insulated turbines, throttle
valves, water pumps, water turbines, insulated heat exchangers.
Macroscopic and Microscopic Description
Microscopic and Macroscopic are terms used to describe size.
Macro means "big" and Micro means "small". Microscopic is a term used
for an object which can only be seen under a microscope. Macroscopic is
a term which is used for objects which can be seen with the naked eye.
The microscopic description of a system is the complete description of
each particle in the system.
The macroscopic description, which is in terms of a few properties
is thus far more accessible and useable for engineering applications. The
measurement of distance in meters and time in seconds are examples of
macroscopic. The microscopic point of view will be used only to explain
some phenomena that cannot be understood by classical means.
Homogeneous System and Heterogeneous System

Homogeneous System is a system that consists of a single physical phase,

either solid, liquid or gas phase only. It is treated as one constituent for its
analysis. Examples are ice, water and steam (three .distinct phases of
water), sugar or salt dissolved in water, air, oxygen gas and nitrogen gas.

Heterogeneous System is a system consists of a mixture of two or more

than two phases of matter. Since each constituent present in the system
has its own properties independent of each other, the system cannot be
analyzed as a single constituent, for examples, mixture of ice and water;
mixture of water and steam; dal, rice and water in a pressure cooker, etc,
Properties and State of a System
 Property. Property is a characteristic which can be quantitatively evaluated or a characteristic
quality of the system which depends on the final system state. Pressure. temperature, velocity,
energy, etc. are all properties. Things that are done, like work or heat flow, are not properties.
Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general classes, intensive and extensive
properties.

Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general classes, intensive and extensive properties.

a). An intensive property is the property that does not depend on the mass of the system or
is any property that exist at a point in space. Temperature pressure, specific volume, are examples
of intensive properties.
b). An extensive property is any property that depends on the size of the system. The
value of an extensive property varies directly with the mass. Mass, volume and specific volume are
examples of extensive properties.
State. The state of an object is its condition described or measured by a list of properties. For
example, temperature and pressure may describe the state of a gas. When a gas expands in the
cylinder, the piston moves outward, the properties of a system change and the system reaches to the
new state 2. It is called a change of state.
Path and Process
Path is a locus of series of states through which a system passes
between initial and final states. A series of states in which a system
passes during a process is called the path of the process.

Process is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from

one thermodynamic state to another.
Classification of Processes
Non-flow process - a process undergone by a fluid in a closed system.
Flow process - a process undergone by a fluid in open system.
Quasi-static process - when a process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains almost infinitesimally close to equilibrium state at all times.
Reversible process - when a process can be reversed to restore the system
to initial conditions without leaving any effect on the surroundings. It passes
through a series of equilibrium states.
Irreversible process is a process which cannot be reversed by the same
path and follows in one direction only. It passes through a series of non
equilibrium states.
Adiabatic process - when a system does not experience any heat exchange
between the system and its surroundings while enclosed by an ideal
insulator.
Types of Processes
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a type of process for which a particular
property remains constant.

Isothermal Process - the temperature remains constant during the

process
Isobaric Process - the pressure remains constant during the process.
Isochoric (Isometric) Process - the volume remains constant during the
process.
Isentropic Process - the entropy remains constant during the process.
 Isenthalpic Process - the enthalpy remains constant during the process.
Cycle
CYCLE
A thermodynamic cycle is a
series of processes that begins
and ends at the same state or a
system that undergoes a series
of processes in such a way that
its initial and final states are
identical.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Properties
• Intrinsic Properties are the basic properties and cannot be
defined terms of other properties. Their values can be assigned
independently for example, length, mass, time, area volume,
pressure, temperature, electric current, etc.
• Extrinsic Properties are the properties whose values cannot be
assigned independently. These are characteristics of the motion or
position of a system and are measured in reference to certain
datum such as velocity, acceleration, potential energy, kinetic
energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc.
DIMENSIONS OF UNITS
• There are two widely used systems of units:
1). International System, S.I. units
2). English System
Base Units for Length, Time, Mass and Force
Unit S.I. English
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
Time second (s) second (s)
Mass kilogram (kg) slug (slug)
Force newton (N) pound (lb)
ex
The force unit is derived using Newton's 2 Law:
nd

The mass unit is derived using Newton's 2nd Law:

Units in the English System
Quantity Unit
Length Ft
Mass Lbm
Time Sec
Force Lbf
Temperature °
R
Acceleration ft/sec2
Area ft2
Density Ibm/ft
Energy ft-lbf
Power ft-lbf/sec
Pressure lbf/in2 (psi)
Volume ft3
SI Units
Unit Pressure N/m2 (Pa)
Quantity
Volume m3
Length Meter (m) Angular acceleration rad/s2
Angular velocity rad/s
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Entropy J/°K
Time Second (s) Frequency 1/s (Hz)
Force Newton (N) Heat N-m (J)
Stress N/m2 (Pa)
Temperature K Thermal conductivity W/m-°K
Acceleration m/s2 Velocity m/s
Dynamic viscosity Pa-s
Area m2
Kinematic viscosity e/s
Density kg/m3 Work N-m (J)
Energy N-m (J) Specific heat J/kg-°K
Power J/s (W)
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Density is a substance mass per unit volume. The higher the density,
the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density can
help identify a substance and is a physical property constant at a
given temperature.

Specific volume of a substance is the substance volume divided by its

mass. Specific volume is the reciprocal of the density of the substance.
Specific Weight of a substance is a substance weight per unit volume. The
specific weight for water at 4°C (39°F) is 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3).

Specific gravity sg
Specific gravity of a liquid is a dimensionless unit and is the ratio of
density of the liquid to the density of water at a specified temperature.
The density of water commonly used is 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.

Specific gravity of a gas is a dimensionless unit and is the ratio of density

of air to the density of water at a specified temperature and pressure. The
density of air commonly used at 20°C and 1 atm (101.325 kPa) is 1.205
kg/m3.
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the warmth or coldness of a
substance with reference to some standard value. The temperature
of a substance is proportional to the stored molecular energy. The
instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known
as thermometers and for measuring high temperatures are known
as pyrometers.
Temperature Scale
Celsius Scale
• Temperature of an ice-water mixture is defined as 0º C
• This is the freezing point of water
• Temperature of a water-steam mixture is defined as 100º C
• This is the boiling point of water
• Distance between these points is divided into 100 segments or degrees
Fahrenheit Scales
• Most common scale used in the US
• Temperature of the freezing point is 32º
• Temperature of the boiling point is 212º
• 180 divisions between the points
Temperatures expressed by the Fahrenheit
scale can be converted to Celsius scale
using the equation:

Temperatures expressed by the Celsius

scale can be converted to the Fahrenheit
scale using the equation:
Absolute Temperature.
Absolute temperature is the temperature measured using a scale
beginning at zero, with that zero being the coldest theoretically attainable
temperature in nature. It is also commonly defined that an absolute
temperature scale is a temperature scale having only positive values.
There are two common absolute temperature scales derived from
the Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius (or Centigrade scale) namely: the
Rankine scale, and the Kelvin scale. The absolute temperature scale that
corresponds to the Celsius scale is called the Kelvin (K) scale, and the
absolute scale that corresponds to the Fahrenheit scale is called
the Rankine (R) scale.
The relationships between the absolute and relative temperature scales
are:
• Triple Point - It is a state of equilibrium, where all three phases
(solid, liquid and gas) of a substance coexist simultaneously. The
triple point of water is 0.01°C (271.16K).
• Boiling Point - it is a state of equilibrium, where liquid and
gaseous phases of a substance coexist simultaneously.
• Melting Point - it is a state of equilibrium, where solid and liquid
phases of a substance coexist simultaneously.
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The SI unit pressure is the Pascal (Pa),
which is a Newton per square meter (N/e). Pressure is measured in any unit of
force divided by any unit of area. A pressure of 1 Pa is small; it approximately
equals the pressure exerted by a dollar bill resting flat on a table. Everyday
pressures are often stated in kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000 Pa).
When pressure is measured relative to atmospheric pressure (101.325 kpa or
14.7 psi), it is called gauge pressure (psig) and when pressure is measured relative
to a perfect vacuum, it is called absolute pressure (kpaa or psia) The latter
pressure scale was developed because almost all pressure gauges register zero
when open to the atmosphere. Therefore, pressure gauges measure the difference
between the pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and that of the
surrounding air.
If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, it is designated as a vacuum.
A perfect vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure. Gauge pressures are
positive if they are above atmospheric pressure and negative if they are below
atmospheric pressure.
 Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
Pabs=Pgauge + Patm
Figure at the right shows
the relationships between
absolute, gauge, vacuum, and
atmospheric pressures.
Atmospheric pressure is the force
per unit area exerted against a
surface by the weight of the air
above that surface. Pressure
atmospheric is also called the
barometric pressure. Values of 1
Pressure atmospheric are 101.325
kPa, 1.033 kg/cm2, 29.92 in Hg,
760 mm Hg or 14.7 psia.