Criminological Research with

Applied Statistics
Crim 7
 Chapter 1

TheNatureand Relevanceof Research in Criminology

  The word research is derived from the prefix re,
which means “to repeat” or re-do”, and the root
word search, which means “to find” or ‘look for”.
 Research is concerned with finding answers
( Mason & Bramble).
 It is a systematic process of collecting and logically
The Meaning of analyzing information or data for some purpose
Research (Macmillan & Schumachet 1989).
 It is a process of obtaining knowledge through
techniques, where truth, accuracy, validity,
reliability, and other criteria can be ascertained
(Genato et al, 1993).
  Systematic- it is systematic as there are interrelated
steps or procedures a researcher has to observe in solving
a problem.
 Objective- it is not based on guesswork.
 Comprehensive- If a researcher is serious about
Characteristics understanding a phenomenon, he needs to examine and
analyze all aspects or angles before making a
of Research generalization or conclusion.
 Critical- This means that procedures employed by the
researcher must be able to withstand detailed scrutiny by
other researchers.
Characteristics
 Valid- Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions,
of Research these have to be based on actual findings.
 Verifiable- Research is said to be verifiable when other
researchers can check on the correctness and validity of
the results based on the methods and procedures
employed by the researcher.
 Empirical- research is empirical when generalizations
drawn by a researcher are rooted upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real-life
experiences or observations.
The Value of Research
  Expert Opinion
 Sensory Experience

Different Ways  Agreement with others

of Obtaining  Reasoning
knowledge  Common Sense
 Research
  It helps students and even professionals to ascertain or
recognize what works in the areas of law enforcement,
prosecution, legal service, court system, community, and
The Importance of research in
Criminology correctional institutions.
 It provides the basis for the formulation of criminal
justice policies.
 It equips students with skills for educational and
professional success, notably critical thinking skills,
analytical thinking skills, and making sense out of the
data from multiple sources.
 It helps students identify more effective approaches to
law enforcement and administration of justice.
 On the basis of who undertakes the
research:
 Academic research – Is one conducted by an
individual in fulfilling the requirements for an
Types of academic title or degree.
Research  Research Project- is a type of research
undertaken by an individual or group of
individuals as part of their professional work
or assignment.
  Based on the final use or application of the
research results;
Pure or theoretical research – is one done for
the purpose of formulating a theory, principle,
Types of or law, with no intended application of results.
Research Applied research- is an inquiry to test or
evaluate a theory or knowledge arrived at, in
the solution of a problem or for useful ends.
 When method of data analysis is considered,
Types of research can be ;

Research  Quantitative research – is used for the purpose

of measuring, for example, a criminological or
criminal justice reality.
 Qualitative research- is done for the purpose of
capturing life as participants experience it.
  When methodology or designed is used as basis for
categorizing research, it can take the following types;
 Descriptive Research- this type of research seeks to
describe systematically, factually, and objectively a
situation, problems or phenomenon.
Types of  Correlational or Associational Research- in this type of

Research research, the investigator tries to probe on the

significance of the relationship between two or more
factors or characteristics.
 Explanatory- in this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks
to clarify why and how a relationship exists between two
or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
  Exploratory Research – this kind of study is
undertaken when the investigator is after probing
or exploring areas where little is known about the
research problem.
 Experimental Research – in this type of research, it
Types of probes into the cause of an effect by exposing one
or more experimental groups to one or more
Research treatments or conditions.
 Ex-post Facto or Causal-Comparative Research-
Research of this type, when the investigator delves
on analyzing the possible effect of a factor which
cannot be manipulated and controlled.
  Historical Research- in this research, the
researcher attempts to reconstruct the past
objectively and accurately or to explain an
incident happened in the past with the use of
Types of data taken from the past.

Research  Ethnographic Research- This type of research is

done when the researcher is concerned with
explaining or describing a phenomenon
holistically, with the use of multiple data
collections techniques.
  Step 1: Idea- Generating Phase.
 Step 2; problem-Definition Phase.
 Step 3: Procedures-Design Phase.
The  Step 4: Data- Collection Phase.
Research  Step 5: data-Analysis Phase.
Process  Step 6: Interpretation Phase.
 Step 7; Communication Phase.
 Concepts- these are abstract tags put on reality
and are the beginning points in all scientific
endeavors. Not to be confused with reality itself,
concepts are symbolic human creations or
constructs that attempt to capture the essence or
Language of reality.
Criminological Examples: crime, recidivism, cynicism,
Research intelligence, risk of parole…etc…
Operationalization- It defines concepts by
describing how they will be measured. Working
definitions or operational definitions are other
terms used to refer to this process.
Variables- these are concepts that have been operationalized or
“concepts that can vary’ or take on different values of a
quantitative nature. They are the mortars and bricks of scientific
investigation..
Theoretically, variables can be of a qualitative nature. For
example, qualitative distinctions could be made regarding a
person’s age as old or young, but the measurement of actual
chronological age would be regarded as more exact.
Dependent and Independent Variables-
 the dependent or outcome variables is the variable one is attempting to predict and by
convention is denoted by the letter Y.
Common outcome variables in criminal justice are concepts such as crime or recidivism.
Ordinarily the dependent variable is some behavior or attitude that is usually the subject
of one’s study.
The independent or predictor variable is the variable that causes, determines, or
precedes in time the dependent variable and is usually denoted by the letter X or any
letter other than Y.
 Problems formulation may be guided by
many concerns including personal
experiences. Take the gut feelings
Selecting seriously and pursue them. Chances are
Criminological that each researcher has unique
research experiences or sensitiveness that gives
Problem him an edge in terms of interest or feel
for a subject. This is an advantage that
should be capitalized upon.
 The mere selection of a subject for
investigation is only the beginnings.
One must formulate hypothesis, define
Specifying key concepts, indicate appropriate
Criminological operationalization or decide upon a
Research qualitative sensitizing approach.
Problem Decide upon research strategies, and
finally relate one’s research problem to
broader issues in criminal justice.
  Following what has been identified as the
‘classic professionalism model’ occupations
and occupational incumbents attempt to
Ethics in convince the public, lawmakers, and other
Criminological professionals that they are deserving of big
respect, prestige, autonomy, privilege, and
Research remuneration on the basis of two key elements.
The first is that the occupation begins to
generate its own esoteric and useful knowledge.
 End
Thank you!!!