General

Concepts
in
Chemistry
 Thermodynamic Properties

ENTHALPY ENTROPY
It is a kind of energy It is a property

It is the sum of internal It is the measurement of

energy and flows energy the randomness of
molecules
It was termed by a scientist
named Heike Kamerlingh It was termed by a
Onnes scientist named Rudolf
Clausius
 Laws of Thermodynamics

0th Law of 1st Law of 2nd Law of 3rd Law of

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics Thermodynamics Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of The First Law of It says that when we are
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics states Thermodynamics states considering a totally
Thermodynamics
that if two systems are that energy can be perfect (100% pure)
states that the state of
in thermodynamic converted from one form crystalline structure, at
entropy of the entire
equilibrium with a third to another with the absolute zero (0 Kelvin),
universe, as an isolated
system, the two original interaction of heat, work it will have no entropy
system, will increase
systems are in thermal and internal energy, but it (S).
overtime.
equilibrium with each cannot be created nor
other destroyed under any
circumstances
Law of Mass Action
A law stating that the rate of any chemical reaction is
proportional to the product of the masses of the reacting
substances with each mass raised to a power equal to the
coefficient that occurs in the chemical reaction

This law was formulated over the period 1864-79 by the

Norwegian scientists Cato M. Guldberg and Peter Waage.
Equilibrium Constant

1
The value of equilibrium constant is independent of Homogeneous
initial concentrations of reacting species. Equilibria

2 The value of equilibrium constant, changes with change Heterogeneous

in temperature. Equilibria

For a reversible reaction, the equilibrium constant for the

3 backward reaction is inverse of the equilibrium for the
forward reaction

The equilibrium constant is independent of the presence

4 of catalyst
Le Chatelier’s Principle Le Chatelier’s states that when stress is introduced
into a system in equilibrium, the system will adjust to
relieve the stress and regain equilibrium.

Adding a reactant

1
3
Equilibrium re-establishes

Forward reaction proceeds

2
Le Chatelier’s Principle Le Chatelier’s states that when stress is introduced
into a system in equilibrium, the system will adjust to
relieve the stress and regain equilibrium.

Removing the reactant

1
3
Equilibrium re-establishes

Forward reaction proceeds

2
 Acid/ Base Theory

1 Bronsted - Lowry Acids and Bases

In 1923, Danish physical chemist Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted (1879-1947) and English chemist
Thomas Martin Lowry (1874-1936) independently proposed their theories on acid-base reactions.

Arrhenius 2

The Arrhenius definition of acid-base reactions, which was devised by Svante Arrhenius, is a
development of the hydrogen theory of acids. It was used to provide a modern definition of acids and
bases, and followed from Arrhenius’s work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the
presence of ions in aqueous solution in 1884.
 Acids and Bases
ACIDS BASES
They turn blue litmus paper to red. They turn red litmus paper to blue.

Sour in taste Bitter in taste.

pH ranges between 0-6 pH ranges in between 8-14

When dissolve in water Differences in Physical Characteristics When dissolve in water

Use for household cleaning Used in manufacturing soap,

Sticky Slippery to touch
synthetic fiber rayon and paper
Have a burning sensation Use for industrial purposes Sodium bicarbonate used in React with acid to neutralize
toothpaste, fire extinguisher and their respective properties
React with bases for baking soda
Use as a metal dissolver
neutralization for their Used in manufacturing soap,
properties synthetic fiber rayon and paper
Turn pink when phenolphthalein
is added to the solution
Remains colorless when Use to ward off rust and Used in alkaline batteries like
corrosion from metals
Phenolphthalein is added to the potassium hydroxide, used also in
solution antiperspirant armpit deodorant

Differences in Uses
 Characteristics of Strong/Weak Acids and Bases
Few Molecules Large Number

Large Number Ions Small Number

Strong Conductivity Weak

Weak Bond Strength Strong

Buffer solutions can be prepared by mixing a weak acid (or weak base) and salt of its conjugate base (or
conjugate acid) that serves as a common ion.

It also can have an effect on buffering solutions, as adding more conjugate ions may shift the pH of the
solution.

The common ion effect describes the effect of equilibrium that occurs when a common ion is added to the
solution.

The pH of a weak acid or a weak base can be influenced by the presence of a common ion in the solution

Common Ion and Buffer

Solutions
Solubility Equilibria
The solubility product constant (Ksp) is the equilibrium constant for a solid that dissolves in an aqueous
solution.

An equilibrium constant is the ration of the concentration of the products of a reaction divided by the
concentration of the reactants once the reaction has reached equilibrium.

Solubility and Molar Solubility

The solubility of a compound is the maximum amount that can dissolved in a given volume of solvent at a
specific temperature.
It can be expressed in terms of the equilibrium concentration of the dissolved ions as molar solubility, which
is related to solubility by the molar mass (MM) of the compound.

Factors affecting the Solubility

1. Common Ion Effect
2. pH of the solution
Facts that
you need to
know
1
Fruits and vegetables are classified depending on which part of the plant they come from. Fruits develop from the
flower of the plant, while the other parts of the plant are categorized as vegetables.

Water is not the universal solvent. A universal solvent theoretically dissolves any other chemical. Water is called
2 the universal solvent because it dissolves more chemicals than any other solvents. However, it does not dissolve
nonpolar molecules and organic compounds.

3 If you pour a handful of salt into a full glass of water, the water level will actually go down rather than overflowing
the glass.

4
There is about 0.4 pound or 200 grams of salt (NaCl) in the average adult human body.

5
A pure element have many forms.
6
Bee stings are acidic while wasp stings are bases

7 It is possible to die from drinking too much water.

8
Chalk is made of trillions of microscopic skeleton fossils of plankton.

9
Lemons have more sugar than strawberries.

1
0 Only about 3% of Earth’s water is freshwater and 1.2% of that can be used as drinking water.
1
1 The softest known substance to humankind is talc

1
2 Fire spreads quicker than downhill. Temperature affects the rate of combustion.

1
3 Your tooth enamel is the hardest chemical substance in your body.

1
4 Gold and copper are the only two metals devoid of having a silvery appearance

1
5 The chemical elements are organized in order of their increasing atomic numbers.
1
6
Hydrofluoric acid is so corrosive that it can dissolve glass

1 Chlorine is the smelly stuff in the swimming pool. Apparently it’s deadly too! Chlorine gas was used by the
7 Germans in World War I to poison Allied soldiers.

1
8 Calcium and lime are soulmates. Calcium is named after the Greek name for lime, “calx” which is calcium oxide.

1 Roses are red, while violets are blue. Rubies are red, while chronium is
9 black/gray/blue/violet/orange/green/yellow/purple/and other colors/ red too. In fact, rubies get their red color from
small traces of chromium.

20 In the periodic table, we have friends like H2O and enemies like mercury and lead. However, manganese is
considered as frenemy- although we need it to survive such as for liver and kidney functioning our bodies cannot
store it.