CHAPTER 3

ATOMS, MOLES, AND

STOICHIOMETRY
 SUB-TOPIC

01 02 03 04

Masses of atom Hydrated and Accurate relative Amount of

& molecules anhydrous compound atomic masses subsance

05 06 07 08

Mole Chemical formulae Solutions & Calculation

calculations & chemical concentration involving gas
equations volumes
 3.1 Masses of atoms and molecules

Atomic Mass Unit

• The mass of a single atom is so small that it is impossible to weigh it
directly

• Atomic masses are therefore defined in terms of a standard atom which is

called the unified atomic mass unit

• This unified atomic mass is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a

carbon-12 isotope

• The symbol for the unified atomic mass is u (often Da, Dalton, is used as
well)

1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Check out this video:

https:// Relative Masses

www.youtube.com/watch?
v=7fYpEnxhKQk
Relative atomic mass, Ar

The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the ratio of the

average mass of the atoms of an element to the unified
atomic mass unit

The relative atomic mass is determined by using

the average mass of the isotopes of a particular element

The Ar has no units as it is a ratio and the units cancel each

other out
 Relative isotopic mass
o The relative isotopic mass is the mass of a particular atom
of an isotope compared to the value of the unified atomic
mass unit

Atoms of the same element with a different number of

neutrons are called isotopes

Isotopes are represented by writing the mass

number as 20Ne, or neon-20 or Ne-20

To calculate the average atomic mass of an element

the percentage abundance is taken into account
 o Multiply the atomic mass by the percentage
abundance for each isotope and add them all
together

o Divide by 100 to get average relative atomic mass

o This is known as the weighted average of the masses of

the isotopes
 Relative atomic mass
vs
relative isotopic mass

The Relative Atomic Mass has to take into account the

abundance of each isotope - which is why the answer is
generally not a whole number (integer) and why the definition
contains the phrase "weighted mean". Relative Isotopic Mass is
the mass of one particular isotope
WHY carbon-12 ???
because atomic weight of carbon is 12 and also, no. of proton
and neutron were also 6 each which sums up to 12. So it was
concluded that carbon will be the best atom for comparison of
atomic masses of other elements' atom as it had exactly 12
atomic mass. Surely carbon, has an isotope with atomic mass
14. So you may wonder then what's the point if the average
atomic mass of carbon is not exactly 12?

Well, the thing is that the other isotope of carbon is not that
common in the atmosphere or hydrosphere or troposphere or
etc. It's found in tree barks and other objects which are really
old enough that too, in very small amounts. C-14 is radioactive
and hence is also useful for calculating the age of a material
(carbon dating).
 Relative molecular mass, Mr

o The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the ratio of weighted average mass
of a molecule of a molecular compound to
the unified atomic mass unit

o The Mr has no units

o The Mr can be found by adding up the relative atomic masses of all

atoms present in one molecule

o When calculating the Mr the simplest formula for the compound is

used, also known as the formula unit

o Eg. silicon dioxide has a giant covalent structure, however the

simplest formula (the formula unit) is SiO2
 Relative formula mass, Mr

● The relative formula mass (Mr) is used for

compounds containing ions

● It has the same units and is calculated in the

same way as the relative molecular mass

● In the table below, the Mr for potassium

carbonate, calcium hydroxide and ammonium
sulfates are relative formula masses
 3.2 Hydrated & anhydrous compounds
● Water of crystallisation is when some compounds can
form crystals which have water as part of their structure

● A compound that contains water of crystallisation is called

a hydrated compound

● The water of crystallisation is separated from the main formula by

a dot when writing the chemical formula of hydrated compounds

○ Eg. hydrated copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4∙5H2O

● A compound which doesn’t contain water of crystallisation is called
an anhydrous compound

○ Eg. anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4

● A compound can be hydrated to different degrees

○ Eg. cobalt(II) chloride can be hydrated by six or two water

molecules

○ CoCl2 ∙6H2O or CoCl2 ∙2H2O

● The conversion of anhydrous compounds to
hydrated compounds is reversible by heating Key words
the hydrated salt Water of crystallisation: a
specific number of moles of
water associated with a
● Anhydrous to hydrated salt: crystal structure

Hydrated compound:
CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4∙5H2O compound which contains
a definite amount of water
in their structure ( water of
● Hydrated to anhydrous salt (by heating): crystallisation

Anhydrous: containing no

CuSO4∙5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O water of crystallisation

 Question

1. Use the periodic table to calculate the relative formula

mass of the following:

a) Calcium chloride. CaCl2 40.1+ 35.5(2)= 111.1

63.5 + 32.1 + 16.0(4)= 159.6

b) Copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4

(14.0 + 1.0 (4))(2) + 32.1 + 16.0(4) = 132.1

c) Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4

d) Magnesium nitrate-6-water, Mg(NO3)2.6H2O 24.3 + (14.0+ 16.0(3))(2) + (6)(1.0(2)+16.0)

=256.3
 3.3 Accurate relative atomic mass
Mass spectrometry
● A mass spectrometer can be used to
measure the mass of each isotope present in
an element.

● It also compares how much of each isotope

is present : the relative abundance (relative
isotopic abundance)

● Relative isotopic abundance: the proportion

of one particular isotopes, usually expressed
as a percentage. The heights of the peak in a A mass spectrometer
mass spectrum shows the proportion of
each isotope present

Simplified diagram of a mass spectrometer
An outline of what happens in a
mass spectrometer
Atoms and molecules can be
deflected by magnetic fields -
provided the atom or molecule is
first turned into an ion. Electrically
charged particles are affected by a
magnetic field although electrically
neutral ones aren't.
Stage 1: Ionisation
● The atom or molecule is ionised by knocking one or more electrons off
to give a positive ion.

Stage 2: Acceleration
● The ions are accelerated so that they all have the same kinetic energy.
All the ions are accelerated into a finely focused beam.

Stage 3: Deflection
● The ions are then deflected by a magnetic field according to their
masses. The lighter they are, the more they are deflected.
● The amount of deflection also depends on the number of positive
charges on the ion - in other words, on how many electrons were
knocked off in the first stage. The more the ion is charged, the more it
gets deflected.

Stage 4: Detection
● The beam of ions passing through the machine is detected electrically.
The detector is connected to the computer which display the mass
spectrum.
 Nucleon
number of
the isotopes
detected

The mass spectrum of a sample of lead

Determination of Ar from mass spectra

● use the data obtained from a mass spectrometer

EXAMPLE

● Ar of neon

(20 x 90.9) + (21 x 0.3) + (22 x 8.8)

=
100
= 20.2

Note that this answer is given to 3

significant figure, which consistent with
Mass spectrum of neon, Ne the data given.
example Look at the mass spectrum of
germanium, Ge.

a) Write the isotopic formula for

the heaviest isotope of
germanium

b) Use the % abundance of

each isotope to calculate the
Ar of Ge

Mass spectrum of germanium, Ge 72.7

Identification of an organic compound using mass
spectrometry

● The main use of mass spectrometry is in the identification of

organic compound

● A substance can be identified by matching its spectrum with the

spectra in a database (fingerprinting)

● What happens-high energy e- knock e- from the molecule and

break covalent bonds, fragmenting the molecule

● Molecular ion, M+ is formed when 1 e- is removed from a molecule to

form ion with a single +ve charge

○ CH4 CH4+ + e- (remember that no atoms are removed)

 Molecular ion fragmentation

The ion that is The breaking up of

formed by the loss a covalent
of an electron from compound during
an original complete mass spectrometry
molecule during into small positively
mass spectrometry charged species, eg.
CH3 +
 ● The peak at highest m/e is caused by the
molecular ion (M+)

● In the case of propanone , the M+ has a

relative mass of 58.0.

● This corresponds to CH3COCH3+ with a

mass of (3x12.0) + (1x16.0) + (6x1.0)

● We also get large peak at 15 and 43

The mass spectrum of propanone, CH3COCH3 ● This is due to fragmentation of

propanone- propanone molecules are
broken apart by the electron
bombardment
 ● A fragment of m/e 15 is +CH3

● A fragment of m/e 43 could be

+
C3H7 or CH3CO+

● The electron bombardment

has caused the C-C single
bonds to break

● The breaking of single bonds

such as C-C, C-O, or C-N is
Fragmentation of propanone also common in fragmentation
 Common fragments in the mass spectra of organic compound

Mass Fragment
15 +
CH3
28 +
CO or C2H4+
29 CH3CH2+
43 C3H7+ or CH3CO+
question
The figure below shows the mass spectrum of ethanol,
C2H5OH. A structural isomer of ethanol is methoxymethane,
an ether with the formula CH3OCH3

a) Predict the mass- to-charge

ratio of a fragment that would
appear on the mass spectrum
of methoxymethane but does
not appear on ethanol’s mass
spectrum 31
b) Give the formula of the ion
responsible for the peak in
your answer to part a

[CH3O]+
question

Identify the fragments with

mass-to-charge ratios of:

i. 15
ii. 43
iii. 45
iv. 60

i CH3
+

ii CH3CO+

iii COOH+

Mass spectrum of ethanoic acid iv CH3COOH (the molecular ion)

+
 High resolution mass spectra
● Can distinguish between ion that appear to have the
same mass on a low resolution mass spectrum

● These accurate isotopic masses allow us to measure Accurate masses of isotopes

the mass of the molecular ion so accurately that it
can only correspond to one molecular formula.

● For eg. A molecular ion at 45 could be caused by

C2H7N or CH3NO.

● However a high resolution mass spectrum would

show the C2H7N+ peak at 45.057846 and CH3NO+ peak
at 45.021462
 Using the [M+1] peak
● There is always be a very small peak just beyond the
molecular ion peak at a mass of [M+1]

● This is caused by molecules in which one of the

carbon atoms is the 13C isotope
● In any organic
compound there will be
1.10 % carbon-13

● We can use this fact to

work out the number of
carbon atoms (n) in a
molecule

● n= x
example
An unknown compound has a molecular ion peak, M+, with a
relative abundance of 54.5 % and has an [M+1]+ peak with a
relative abundance of 3.6 %. How many carbon atoms does
the unknown compound contain?

Solution
substituting the values of relative abundance into the
equation:

n= x

We get:

n = x = 6.0 There are 6 carbon atoms in each

molecule
question

A hydrocarbon has a molecular ion peak at a mass-to-charge

ratio of 84 (relative abundance of 62.0 %) and an [M+1] peak
with a relative abundance of 4.1 %. How many carbon atoms
are in the hydrocarbon?

Answer: 6
 Material relating to [M+4]

Using [M+2] and [M+4] peaks

peaks is extension
content. It is not part of the
syllabus

● If the sample compound contains chlorine or bromine atoms, we

also get peaks beyond the molecular ion peak because of
isotopes of chlorine and bromine

● Chlorine has 2 isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl

● Bromine has 2 isotopes, 79Br and 81Br

● We can tell whether there is Cl or Br in an organic compound by

comparing the relative heights of the M and [M+2] peaks.

● If the peak heights are equal, there is one atom of Br per

molecule. If the peak heights are in the ratio 3 [M] to 1 [M+2],
there is one atom of Cl per molecule
Naturally occurring isotopes of chlorine and bromine
 One Cl or Br atom per molecule
● Let say a sample of chloromethane, CH3Cl

● We will have molecule of CH3 35Cl (75%) and

CH337Cl (25%)

● The molecular ion will be CH335Cl+. And two M+

units beyond that on the mass spectrum will
be the peak for CH337Cl+

● The peak for CH337Cl+ will be one-third the [M+2]

height of the molecular ion. This is the [M+2]
peak
● In the mass spectrum of bromomethane, CH3Br, we
will have two molecular ion peaks at approximately
the same height

● One for CH379Br+ and the other for CH381Br+ (the

[M+2] peak)
Two Cl or Br atoms per molecule

● We will face 3 possibilities. Eg. Dichloromethane, CH2Cl2

35
ClCH235Cl+ the M peak
35
ClCH237Cl+ the [M+2] peak
37
ClCH235Cl+ the [M+2] peak
37
ClCH237Cl+ the [M+4] peak

● The relative heights of the peaks must take into account the natural
abundance: it works out as 9 : 6 : 1 for molecule with two Cl atom

● The M, [M+2], and [M+4] peaks also occur in dibromomethane but the
relative height are easier to work out since 79Br:81Br is 1 : 1

● Therefore M : [M+2] : [M+4] is 1 : 2 : 1

 question
a) List the ions responsible for the M, [M+2], and [M+4] peaks is a mass spectrum of
dibromomethane
● M = CH2 79Br79Br+
● [M + 2] = CH2 79Br81Br+
● [M + 4] = CH2 81Br81Br+

a) What would be the mass-to-charge ratio and relative abundance of the major peaks with
the highest charge-to-mass ratios in the mass spectrum of chloroethane?

64 (from C2H5 35Cl+) and 66 (from C2H5 37Cl+), relative abundances 3 : 1

b) How many peaks would you see beyond the molecular ion peak in, 1,1-dibromoethane?
What would be their mass-to-charge ratios and abundance relative to the molecular ion?
(Ignore ion peaks due to 13C)

Two peaks beyond the M+ ion: one at m/e of 188 (twice as abundant as the M+ ion) and one
at 190 (with the same abundance as the M+ ion)
3.4 Amount of substance

The mole & avogadro constant

● The Avogadro constant (NA or L) is the number of particles equivalent
to the relative atomic mass or molecular mass of a substance

○ The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions and

electrons

● The value of NA is 6.02 x 1023 g mol-1

● The mass of a substance with this number of particles is called

a mole (mol)

○ The mass of a substance containing the same number of

fundamental units as there are atoms in exactly 12.00 g of 12C
● Mole : the amount of substance which contains 6.02 X
1023 specified particles (atom, molecule, atom, ion, or
electrons)

● Avogadro constant, L : the number of specified

particles (atom, molecule, atom, ion, or electrons) in a
mole of those particles. Its numerical value is 6.02 X
1023

● Molar mass, M: the mass of the mole of substance in

grams

● Molar mass is a general term used for the mass in

grams of 1 mole of a compound, whether ionic, simple
molecule or giant covalent structure. Unit, g mol-1
● One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic
mass of that element in grams

○ One mole of carbon, that is if you had 6.02 x

1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, would have a mass
of 12 g

○ One mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1 + 16) =

18 g
Answer 1
● The relative atomic mass of Na is 22.99
● Therefore, 1 mol of Na has a mass of 22.99 g mol-1
● 1 mol of Na will contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Na (Avogadro’s
constant)

Answer 2
● The relative atomic mass of H is 1.005
● Since there are 2 H atoms in H2, the mass of 1 mol of H2 is (2 x
1.005) 2.01 g mol-1
● 1 mol of H2 will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules of H2
● Since there are 2 H atoms in H2, 1 mol of H2 will contain 1.204 x
1024 H atoms

?
Answer 3
● The relative atomic mass of Na and Cl is 22.99 and
35.45 respectively
● Therefore, 1 mol of NaCl has a mass of (22.99 +
35.45) 58.44 g mol-1
● 1 mol of NaCl will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules of
NaCl
● Since there are Na and Cl atoms in NaCl, 1 mol of
NaCl will contain 1.204 x 1024 atoms in total
Moles & mass

• The number of moles of a substance can be found by using the

following equation:
• It is important to be clear about the type of particle you are
referring to when dealing with moles

• Eg. 1 mole of CaF2 contains one mole of CaF2 formula units,

but 1 mole of Ca2+ and 2 moles of F– ion
3.5 Mole calculation
Reacting masses
● The masses of reactants are useful to determine how much of the
reactants exactly react with each other to prevent waste

● To calculate the reacting masses, the chemical equation is required

● This equation shows the ratio of moles of all the reactants and
products, also called the stoichiometry, of the equation

● To find the mass of products formed in a reaction the following pieces

of information is needed:

○ The mass of the reactants

○ The molar mass of the reactants

○ The balanced equation

Example
● The reactant which has the number of moles in
excess is called the excess reagent

● The reactant which is not in excess is called the

limiting reagent

● In calculating which reactant is limiting, you must:

○ Work out the numbers of moles of reactant

○ Ratio of reactants (stoichiometry)

Example
Example
question
Sodium reacts with excess oxygen to form sodium
peroxide, Na2O2

2Na + O2 → Na2O2

Calculate the maximum mass of sodium peroxide

formed when 4.60g od sodium is burnt in excess
oxygen. (Ar values Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
Step 1: Write balances equation

2Na + O2 → Na2O2

Step 2: Calculate molar masses taking into account the no. of moles in
the equation

2 mole Na → 1 mole of Na2O2

(2 x 23.0) → (23.0x2) + (16.0x2)
46 g Na → 78 g Na2O2
So 4.6 g Na→ x g Na2O2

Step 3: Calculate mass of Na2O2 in 4.6 g Na

x 4.6 = 7.8 g Na2O2

question

Tin (IV) oxide is reduced to tin by carbon. Carbon

monoxide is also formed.

SnO2 + 2C → Sn + 2CO

Calculate the mass of carbon that exactly react with

14.0g of tin (IV) oxide. Give your answer to 3 significant
figure.

(Ar values: C= 12.0, O= 16.0, Sn= 118.7)

Step 1: Write balances equation

SnO2 + 2C → Sn + 2CO

Step 2: Calculate molar masses taking into account the no.

of moles in the equation

1 mole SnO2 → 2 mole of C

(118.7+16.0(2)) → (12.0x2)
150.7 g SnO2 → 24.0 g C
So 14.0 g SnO2 → x g C

Step 3: Calculate mass of Na2O2 in 4.6 g Na

x 14.0 = 2.23 g C
The stoichiometric of equation

● How to find unknown stoichiometric of reaction??

● We need

○ Amount of each reactant

○ Amount of product formed

• For eg. 4.0 g H2 react with 32.0 g of O2, produced 36.0 g
of water

H2 + O2 → H2O

=2 mol =1 mol =2 mol

2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
question

● 56.2 g of silicon, Si, reacts exactly with 284.0 g of

chlorine, Cl2, to form 340.2 g of silicon (IV) chloride,
SiCl4. Use this information to calculate the
stoichiometry of the reaction. (Ar Cl= 35.5, Si= 28 .1)

ratio of Si : Cl2 : SiCl4 = 1 : 2 : 1

Si + 2Cl2 → SiCl4
example
How many moles of calcium oxide are there in 2.9 g of calcium
oxide? (Ar values: Ca = 40.1, O= 16.0)

Solution
= 0.051 693

=0.052 mol

Note:
1. Zero before number is not significant figure
2. After the decimal point, zeros after a number are
significant figure
3. if you are performing a calculation with several steps, do
not round up in between steps. Round up at the end
Percentage composition by mass

● We can use the formula of a compound and

relative atomic masses to calculate the percentage
by mass of a particular element in a compound

● % by mass = atomic mass x no. of moles of element

Molar mass of compound
example
Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron (III) oxide,
Fe2O3. (Ar value: Fe= 55.8, O=16.0)

Solution

% by mass of iron = 2 X 55.8

X 100
(2x55.8)+(3x16.0)
= 69.9 %
Question

Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon in

ethanol, C2H5OH. (Ar values: C= 12.0, H=1.0, O=16.0)

● 52.2 %
 Percentage yield
● In a lot of reactions, not all reactants react to form products which can be
due to several factors:

○ Other reactions take place simultaneously

○ The reaction does not go to completion

○ Reactants or products are lost to the atmosphere

● The percentage yield shows how much of a particular product you get from
the reactants compared to the maximum theoretical amount that you can
get:

● Where actual yield is the number of moles or mass of product

obtained experimentally
● The predicted yield is the number of moles or mass obtained by calculation
 example
A sample of aluminium chloride, AlCl3 is made by reacting 18 g of aluminium
?
powder with excess chlorine. The mass of aluminium chloride produced is 71.0g.
Calculate the percentage yield of aluminium oxide. (Ar values: Al= 27.0, Cl= 35.5)

2Al + 3Cl2 → 2 AlCl3

Solution
Step 1
Step 3
Calculate the predicted mass Calculate % yield
2 x 27 g Al → 2 x (27+ (35.5 X3)) AlCl3
54 g Al produces 267 g AlCl3 x 100 = 79.8

Step 2
Calculate mass AlCl3 formed from the given amount of Al
18 g Al produces x g of AlCl3
x 18 = 89.0 g AlCl3
Empirical formula

● The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the

elements present in one molecule or formula unit of the
compound

○ Eg. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O

● Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular

formulae
● Simple inorganic molecules however have often similar empirical
and molecular formulae
● Ionic compounds always have similar empirical and molecular
formulae
question

Deduce the empirical formula of:

a) hydrazine, N2H4
b) Octane, C8H18
c) Benzene, C6H6
d) Ammonia, NH3
question

● The composition by mass of a hydrocarbon is 10 %

hydrogen and 90% carbon. Deduce the empirical
formula of this hydrocarbon. (Ar values: C= 12.0,
H=1.0)

empirical formula is C3H4

Molecular formula
● The molecular formula gives the exact numbers of
atoms of each element present in the formula of
the compound

● The molecular formula can be found by dividing

the relative formula mass of the molecular
formula by the relative formula mass of
the empirical formula

● Multiply the number of each element present in the

empirical formula by this number to find the
molecular formula
example
Answer

Step 1: Calculate relative formula mass of empirical formula

Relative formula mass = (C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1)
Relative formula mass = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1)
Relative formula mass = 90

Step 2: Divide relative formula mass of X by relative formula mass of empirical

formula
Ratio between Mr of X and the Mr of the empirical formula = 180/90

Ratio between Mr of X and the Mr of the empirical formula = 2

Step 3: Multiply each number of elements by 2

(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S1 x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)

Molecular Formula of X is C8H20S2

Answers
● Compound A:
C3H5 = (3 × 12.0) + (5 × 1.0) = 41.0;
82
41.0
= 2, so molecular formula is C6H10

● Compound B:
CCl3 = 12.0 + (3 × 35.5) = 118.5;
237
118.5
= 2, so molecular formula is C2Cl6

● Compound C:
CH2 = 12.0 + (2 × 1.0) = 14.0;
112
14.0
= 8, so molecular formula is C8H16
3.6 Chemical formulae and chemical equations

● Ionic compounds are formed from a metal and a

non metal bonded together

● Ionic compounds are electrically neutral; the

positive charges equal the negative charges
 Charges on positive ions

● All metals form positive ions

○ There are some non-metal positive ions such as ammonium, NH4+,

and hydrogen, H+
● The metals in Group 1, Group 2 and Group 13 have a charge of 1+ and 2+
and 3+ respectively

● The charge on the ions of the transition elements can vary which is
why Roman numerals are often used to indicate their charge

● Roman numerals are used in some compounds formed from transition

elements to show the charge (or oxidation state) of metal ions

○ Eg. in copper (II) oxide, the copper ion has a charge of 2+ whereas in
copper (III) nitrate, the copper has a charge of 3+
Non-metal ions
● The non-metals in group 15 to 17 have a negative charge and have the
suffix ‘ide’

○ Eg. nitride, chloride, bromide, iodide

● Elements in group 17 gain 1 electron so have a 1- charge, eg. Br–

● Elements in group 16 gain 2 electrons so have a 2- charge, eg. O2-
● Elements in group 15 gain 3 electrons so have a 3- charge, eg. N3-

● There are also more complex negative ions, which are negative ions
made up of more than one type of atom
Formulae of
ionic
compounds
table
 Covalent compounds

● Covalent compounds are

chemical compounds made of
elements connected by covalent
bonds.

● Covalent bonds only form

between nonmetallic elements
because these elements have the
same or similar
electronegativity values.
question

Write down the formula of each of the following

compound:

i. Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2

ii. Calcium sulfate CaSO4

iii. Sodium iodide NaI
iv. Hydrogen bromide HBr
v. Sodium sulfide
Na2S
question

Name each of the following compounds

I. Na3PO4
II. (NH4)2SO4
III. AlCl3
IV. Ca(NO3)2
i sodium phosphate
ii ammonium sulfate
iii aluminium chloride
iv calcium nitrate
Balancing chemical equation

● A symbol equation is a shorthand way of

describing a chemical reaction using chemical
symbols to show the number and type of each
atom in the reactants and products

● A word equation is a longer way of describing a

chemical reaction using only words to show the
reactants and products
Balancing equations

● During chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed

● The number of each atom on each side of the reaction must

therefore be the same

○ E.g. the reaction needs to be balanced

● When balancing equations remember:

○ Not to change any of the formulae

○ To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of

the formulae

○ in combustion reactions of organic compounds-balance firstly

the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen
● When balancing equations follow the following the steps:

○ Write the formulae of the reactants and products

○ Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and

product

○ Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms

are balanced

○ Use appropriate state symbols in the equation

● The physical state of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction is specified by using state
symbols

○ (s) solid

○ (l) liquid

○ (g) gas

○ (aq) aqueous
Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products

Mg + O2 → MgO

Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product

Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2
moles of magnesium oxide

Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation

2Mg(s) + O (g) → 2MgO(s)
Ionic equations
● In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their
ions

● Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic

compounds, however only some of the ions in solution take
part in the reactions

● The ions that do not take part in the reaction are

called spectator ions

● An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles

taking part in a reaction, without showing the spectator
ions
Answer 1:

Step 1: To balance the equation, write out the symbol equation showing reactants and
products

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product. The equation is
already balanced

Step 3: Use appropriate state symbols in the equation

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Answer 2:

Step 1: The full chemical equation for the reaction is

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Step 2: Break down reactants into their respective ions

Zn (s) + Cu2+ SO42- (aq) → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)

Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic Notice that:
equation -There are no sulfate
ions. These are the
Zn (s) + Cu2+SO42- (aq) → Zn2+SO42- (aq) + Cu (s) spectator ions as they
have not change
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
-both the charges and
the atoms are
balanced
3.7 solutions & concentration

concentrations of solutions

● The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved

in a solvent to make 1 dm3 of solution

○ The solute is the substance that dissolves in a solvent to form

a solution

○ The solvent is a substance which dissolves a solute to form

solution (water)
● A concentrated solution is a solution that has a high concentration of
solute

● A dilute solution is a solution with a low concentration of solute

● When carrying out calculations involve concentrations in mol dm-3 the

following points need to be considered:

○ Change mass in grams to moles

○ Change cm3 to dm3 (by dividing the number of cm3 by 1000)

● To calculate the mass of a substance present in solution of
known concentration and volume:

○ Rearrange the concentration equation

● number of moles (mol) = concentration (mol dm-3) x volume

(dm3)

○ Multiply the moles of solute by its molar mass

● mass of solute (g) = number of moles (mol) x molar mass (g

mol-1)
question
Calculate the concentration, in mol dm-3, of the following
solutions: (Ar values: C= 12.0, H=1.0, Na=23.0, O=16.0)

i. A solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, containing 2.0 g of

sodium hydroxide in 50 cm3 solution

x 1.0 mol dm−3

ii. A solution of ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, containing 12.0 g of

ethanoic acid in 250 cm3 of solution.

0.8 mol dm-3

question

Calculate the number of moles of solute dissolved in each of

the following:

i. 40 cm3 of aqueous nitric acid of concentration 0.2 mol

dm-3
0.2 x = 8 x 10-3 mol

ii. 50 cm3 of calcium hydroxide solution of concentration

0.01 mol dm-3
= 5 x 10-4 mol
Calculating solution concentration by titration
● A titration is often used to find the exact concentration of a solution

● When doing calculations from the results of titration, remember;

○ Average only those titres which are very close to each other, eg.
Within 0.1-0.2 cm3 of each other, and ignore the rough (rangefinder)
titration

○ Keep the units the same. It is often easier to convert volumes in cm3
to dm3 because solution concentration is usually given in mol dm-3

○ Some books used M in place of mol dm-3

Step 1: Write the balanced symbol equation

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → Na2Cl2 + H2O + CO2

Step 2: Calculate the amount, in moles, of sodium carbonate reacted by

rearranging the equation for amount of substance (mol) and dividing by
the volume by 1000 to convert cm3 to dm3

amount (Na2CO3) = 0.025 dm3 x 0.050 mol dm-3 = 0.00125 mol

Step 3: Calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid required using the

reaction’s stoichiometry

1 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 mol of HCl, so the molar ratio is 1 : 2

Therefore 0.00125 moles of Na2CO3 react with 0.00250 moles of HCl

Step 4: Calculate the concentration, in mol dm-3 of
hydrochloric acid

concentration (HCl) (mol dm-3) = 0.125 mol dm-3

?
Deducing stoichiometry by titration

● We can use titration results to find stoichiometry of

reaction

● In order to do this we need to know the

concentration and volumes of both reactants
example
25.0 cm3 of a 0.0500 mol dm-3 solution of a metal hydroxide was titrated
against a solution of 0.200 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid. It required 12.5 cm3 of
hydrochloric acid to exactly neutralise the metal hydroxide. Deduce the
stoichiometry of this reaction.

Solution

Step 1
Calculate the no. of moles of each reagent

Moles of metal hydroxide = concentration x volume

0.0500 x = 1.25 x 10-3 mol

Moles of hydrochloric acid= concentration x volume

0.200 x = 2.50 x 10-3 mol
Step 2
Deduce the simplest mole ratio of metal hydroxide to
hydrochloric acid

1.25 x 10-3 mol of metal hydroxide : 2.50 x 10-3 mol of HCl

1 hydroxide : 2 acid

Step 3
Write the equation

M(OH)2 + 2HCl → MCl2 + 2H2O

1 mole hydroxide ions neutralise 1 mole of hydrogen ions. As 1

mole of the metal hydroxide neutralises 2 moles of HCl, the
metal hydroxide must contain 2 hydroxide ions in each
formula unit.
 3.8 calculations involving gas volumes

● Avogadro suggested that ‘equal volumes of gases contain the same number of
molecules’ (also called Avogadro’s hypothesis)

● At room temperature (20 degrees Celsius) and pressure (1 atm) one mole of any
gas has a volume of 24.0 dm3

● This molar gas volume of 24.0 dm3 can be used to find:

○ The volume of a given mass or number of moles of gas: Molar gas volume:
volume of gas (dm3) = amount of gas (mol) x 24
The volume occupied by
one mole of any gas at
room temperature and
○ The mass or number of moles of a given volume of gas:
pressure (r.t.p). One
mole of gas occupies
24.0 dm3 at r.t.p
Example
Gas volumes and stoichiometry

● We can use the ratio of reacting volumes of gases to

deduce the stoichiometry of a reaction.
● For e.g.

H2 + O2 → H2O

20 cm3 10cm3
Ratio
of
moles 2 : 1

Equation 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

example
question

50 cm3 of a gaseous hydride of phosphorus, PHn react with

exactly 150 cm3 of chlorine, Cl2, to form liquid phosphorus
trichloride and 150 cm3 of hydrogen chloride gas, HCl.

a) How many moles of chlorine react with 1 mole of the

gaseous hydride?
b) Deduce the formula of the phosphorus hydride
c) Write a balanced equation for the reaction

a 3 moles
b PH3 (ratio of volumes = ratio of moles)
c PH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) → PCl3(g) + 3HCl(g)
 summary

Unified
atomic Relative Mass Avogadro
mass=1/12 atomic mass spectrometer number
mass of 12C 6.02 x 1023

Empirical & Mole concept Stoichiometry

molecular -calculate reacting mass of reaction
formula Volume & concentration
-volume of gases
THANKS!

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