Database System 1 Lab

DBMS (LAB)
SQL/PLSQL
By:-Gourav Kottawar 1
• Introduction of SQL
• DDL, DML, DTL
• Basic Data Types
• Char, varchar/varchar2, long, number, Fixed & floating point Date,
CLOB, BLOB
• What is SQL?
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language
• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
• What Can SQL do?
• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database
• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create stored procedures in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQLBy:-Gourav
can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
Kottawar 3
• SELECT * FROM Persons;
• SQL is not case sensitive, Semicolon after SQL Statements.
• Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each
SQL statement.
• Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement
in database systems that allow more than one SQL statement to
be executed in the same call to the server.
• We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not
have to put a semicolon after each SQL statement, but some
database programs force you to use it.
• SQL DML and DDL
• SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation
Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language (DDL).
• The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
• SELECT - extracts data from a database

• UPDATE - updates data in a database
• DELETE - deletes data from a database
• INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
• The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or
deleted. It also define indexes (keys), specify links between
tables, and impose constraints between tables. The most
important DDL statements in SQL are:
• CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
• ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
• DROP TABLE - deletes a table
• A Transaction Control Language (TCL) :
• is a computer language and a subset of SQL, used to control
transactional processing in a database. A transaction is logical
unit of work that comprises one or more SQL statements,
usually a group of Data Manipulation Language (DML)
statements.
• Examples of TCL commands include:
• COMMIT to apply the transaction by saving the database
changes.
• ROLLBACK to undo all changes of a transaction.
• SAVEPOINT to divide the transaction into smaller sections. It
defines breakpoints for a transaction to allow partial rollbacks.
DATA TYPES IN SQL
Data Type Syntax Explanation (if applicable)
INTEGER INTEGER(p) Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision p
SMALLINT Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 5
INTEGER Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 10
Syntax
float [ ( n ) ]
Is a floating point number data with the following valid values:
- 1.79E + 308 through -2.23E - 308, 0 and 2.23E -308 through
1.79E + 308. n is the number of bits used to store the mantissa
of the float number in scientific notation and thus dictates the
precision and storage size. n must be a value from 1 through
53. The default value of n is 53.
real
Is a floating point number data with the following valid values:
–3.40E + 38 through -1.18E - 38, 0 and 1.18E - 38 through
3.40E + 38. Storage size is 4 bytes. In SQL Server, the
synonym for real is float(24).
Data type Range Storage
- 1.79E+308 to -2.23E-
Depends on the value of
float 308, 0 and 2.23E-308 to
n
1.79E+308
- 3.40E + 38 to -1.18E -
real 38, 0 and 1.18E - 38 to 4 Bytes
3.40E + 38
nvalue Precision Storage size

1-24 7 digits 4 bytes
25-53 15 digits 8 bytes
Where x is the number of
characters to store. This data type
character char(x)
is space padded to fill the number
of characters specified.
Where x is the number of

character varying varchar2(x) characters to store. This data type
does NOT space pad.
Stores TRUE or FALSE values

BOOLEAN BOOLEAN
Stores year, month, and day

date date
values.
Stores the hour, minute, and
time time
second values.
Stores year, month, day, hour,

timestamp timestamp
minute, and second values.
Difference between VARCHAR and VARCHAR2
1. VARCHAR is going to be replaced by
VARCHAR2 in next version. So, Oracle
suggests the use VARCHAR2 instead of
VARCHAR while declaring datatype.
2. VARCHAR can store up to 2000 bytes of

characters while VARCHAR2 can store up to 4000
bytes of characters.
3. If we declare datatype as VARCHAR then it will

occupy space for NULL values, In case of
VARCHAR2 datatype it will not occupy any space.
• Difference Between Number and Integer
• NUMBER always stores as we entered. Scale is -84 to 127. But
INTEGER rounds to whole number. The scale for INTEGER is 0.
INTEGER is equivalent to NUMBER(38,0). It means, INTEGER is
constrained number. The decimal place will be rounded. But
NUMBER is not constrained.
INTEGER(12,2) => 12
INTEGER(12.5) => 13
INTEGER(12.9) => 13
INTEGER(12.4) => 12
NUMBER(12,2) => 12.2
NUMBER(12.5) => 12.5
NUMBER(12.9) => 12.9
NUMBER(12.4) => 12.4
• Database Tables
• A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table
is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables
contain records (rows) with data.
• Below is an example of a table called "Persons":
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and
five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City).
• The CREATE TABLE Statement
• The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a
database.
• SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax
• CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
• CREATE TABLE Example
• Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains
five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City.
• We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
• CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
• The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number. The
LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type
varchar with a maximum length of 255 characters.
• The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO
statement.
• SQL Constraints
• Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
• Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the
CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created (with the
ALTER TABLE statement).
• We will focus on the following constraints:
• NOT NULL
• UNIQUE
• PRIMARY KEY
• FOREIGN KEY
• CHECK
• DEFAULT
• SQL NOT NULL Constraint
• The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
• The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This
means that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without
adding a value to this field.
• The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column
to not accept NULL values:

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255)
) By:-Gourav Kottawar 21
• SQL UNIQUE Constraint
• The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a
database table.
• The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a
guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of columns.
• A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE
constraint defined on it.
• Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table,
but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint per table.
• SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE
• The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the
"P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
• MySQL:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)
(
P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
City varchar(255)
)
(
P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
City varchar(255)
)
• To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
• MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
Address
By:-Gourav Kottawar varchar(255), 25
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT uc_PersonsId UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
• SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE
• To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the
table is already created, use the following SQL:
• ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (P_Id)
• To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a

UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL
syntax:

ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)

• To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint
• To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:
• SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID
• SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
• The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record
in a database table.
• Primary keys must contain unique values.
• A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
• Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have
only one primary key.
• SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
• The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the
"Persons" table is created:
• MySQL:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

(
P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
City varchar(255)
)
• SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE
• To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column
when the table is already created, use the following SQL:
ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id);
• Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add

a primary key, the primary key column(s) must
already have been declared to not contain NULL
values (when the table was first created).
• To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint
• To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
• MySQL:
DROP PRIMARY KEY
DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
• The FOREIGN KEY constraint SQL FOREIGN
KEY Constraint
• A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in
another table.
• Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the
following two tables:
• The "Persons" table:
PERSONS TABLE
ORDERS TABLE
O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the
"P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in
the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the

"Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would

destroy link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is
inserted into the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the
values contained in the table it points to.
• CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
• CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
DROP TABLE
• Helps in removing the rows from the table.
• It is a DML command.
• The description (structure) of the table is removed.
• The existence of the table is removed.
(Table cant be seen from in select * from tab).
Rollback though shows completed but table view
doesn’t come back.
AS IT IS A DML COMMAND ROLLBACK WILL
NOT WORK
• ALTER table tablename
DROP column colname
SQL> alter table emp
2 drop column age;
drop column age
*
ERROR at line 2: ORA-00905: missing keyword
ALTER-Drop column will work in Oracle 9i and above version.
• ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id);
• ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
SQL> drop table room;
Table dropped.
SQL> desc room; //description is not available

ERROR:
ORA-04043: object room does not exist
• The INSERT INTO Statement
• The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new
row in a table.
• SQL INSERT INTO Syntax:
• It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in
two forms.
• The first form doesn't specify the column names
where the data will be inserted, only their values:
• INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
• INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName,
FirstName)
VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')
• The second form specifies both the column names

and the values to be inserted:
• INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,

column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
:
• SQL INSERT INTO Example

• We have the following "Persons" table:
Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement
INSERT INTO Persons

VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')
4 Kottawar
By:-Gourav Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger 44
• Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
• It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.
• The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add
data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the "FirstName" columns:
• INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)

VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')
• The "Persons" table will now look like this:
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

5 Tjessem Jakob
• The SQL SELECT Statement
• The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. The
result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
• SQL SELECT Syntax

• SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
• SELECT * FROM table_name
And
• ‘*’ Also called as Global Extraction Opearator

• Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.
• An SQL SELECT Example
FirstNam
P_Id LastName Address City
e
Timoteivn
1 Hansen Ola Sandnes
10

Stavange
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20
r
• SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE
• The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the
"P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created. The
CHECK constraint specifies that the column "P_Id" must
only include integers greater than 0.

(
P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0),
City varchar(25)
)
• To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a
CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following
SQL syntax:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND
City='Sandnes')
)
• SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE
• To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column
when the table is already created, use the following
SQL:
ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)
• To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for
defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK
(P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')
• To DROP a CHECK Constraint
• To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:

DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person;
• The DROP TABLE Statement
• The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.
DROP TABLE table_name
• SQL SELECT Syntax
FROM table_name
• SELECT * FROM table_name
• And
• ‘*’ Also called as Global Extraction Opearator
Timoteivn
10
• SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
• The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari
• The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
• In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values.

This is not a problem, however, sometimes you will want to
list only the different (distinct) values in a table.
• The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct
(different) values.
• SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
• SELECT DISTINCT Example
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons;
• City
• Sandnes
• Stavanger
• CLAUSES IN SQL The WHERE Clause
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
• SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes'
Timoteivn
10
• This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove‘ ;
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
• Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause
• With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be
used:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN If you know the exact value you want to
By:-Gourav Kottawar
return for at least one of the columns 62
• Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to
"Tove" AND the last name equal to "Svendson":
• We use the following SELECT statement:

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson‘ ;
• Now we want to select only the persons with the first name
equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to "Ola":We use the
following SELECT statement:

OR FirstName='Ola‘ ;
• SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE
LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola');

P_Id LastName FirstNameAddress City
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23Sandnes

• SQL IN Operator
• The IN Operator
• The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a
WHERE clause.
• SQL IN Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
• IN Operator Example
WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')
_Id LastName FirstName Address City
• SQL BETWEEN Operator
• The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select
a range of data between two values.
• The BETWEEN Operator
• The BETWEEN operator selects range of data between two
values. The values can be numbers, text, or dates.
• SQL BETWEEN Syntax:SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
• Using the % Wildcard
LIKE Operator
• 1.Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts
with "sa" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE City LIKE 'sa%'
FirstNam
P_Id LastName Address City
e

• 2. Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that
contains the pattern "nes" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'
• The result-set will look like this
• 3.Now we want to select the persons with a first name that
starts with any character, followed by "la" from the "Persons"
table.
WHERE FirstName LIKE '_la'
• 4.Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts
with "S", followed by any character, followed by "end", followed
by any character, followed by "on" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE 'S_end_on'
_Id LastName FirstName Address City
• Using the [charlist] Wildcard
• 5.Now we want to select the persons with a last name that
starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'

• 5.Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do
not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table.
WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'
• The UPDATE Statement
• The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a
table.
• SQL UPDATE Syntax
• UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
• Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The
WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should
be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be
updated!
• SQL UPDATE Example :The "Persons" table

5
By:-Gourav Kottawar Tjessem Jakob 80
• Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob"
in the "Persons" table.
• We use the following SQL statement:
• UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob‘;
5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes
• The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
• In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values.
This is not a problem, however, sometimes you will want to
list only the different (distinct) values in a table.
• The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct
(different) values.
• SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax
• SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
• SELECT DISTINCT Example

Stavange
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20
r
• CLAUSES IN SQL
• The WHERE Clause
• The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that
fulfill a specified criterion.
• SQL WHERE Syntax
FROM table_name
• WHERE Clause Example

Now we want to select only the persons living

in the city "Sandnes" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
The result-set will look like this:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City='Sandnes '
Quotes Around Text Fields

SQL uses single quotes around text values (most
database systems will also accept double quotes).
Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in
quotes.
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove

• For numeric values:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'

• Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause
• With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be
used:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN
If you know the exact value you want to
return for at least one of the columns
• The AND operator displays a record if both the first
condition and the second condition is true.
• The OR operator displays a record if either the first
condition or the second condition is true.
• AND Operator Example
3
By:-Gourav Kottawar Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger 89
• Now we want to select only the persons with the first
name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to
"Svendson":

AND LastName='Svendson‘
• TheP_Id
result-setLastName
will look like this:
FirstName Address City
Borgvn
2 Svendson Tove Sandnes
23
• OR Operator Example
• Now we want to select only the persons with the first
name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to
"Ola":We use the following SELECT statement:

OR FirstName='Ola'
Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex
expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to
"Svendson" AND the first name equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola":
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE

LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')
• SQL IN Operator
• The IN Operator
• The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a
WHERE clause.
• SQL IN Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
• IN Operator Example
• Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to
"Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table above.
WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')

• SQL BETWEEN Operator
• The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range
of data between two values.
• The BETWEEN Operator
• The BETWEEN operator selects range of data between two values. The
values can be numbers, text, or dates.
• SQL BETWEEN Syntax:SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
•
•
•
•
WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
Timoteivn
10
To display the persons outside the range in the previous

example, use NOT BETWEEN:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE LastName
NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'
The result-set will look like this:
By:-Gourav Kottawar 2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes 96

ORDER BY clause
• So far, we have seen how to get data out of a table using SELECT and
WHERE commands. Often, however, we need to list the output in a
particular order. This could be in ascending order, in descending order, or
could be based on either numerical value or text value. In such cases, we
can use the ORDER BY keyword to achieve our goal.
• The syntax for an ORDER BY statement is as follows:
• SELECT "column_name"
FROM "table_name"
[WHERE "condition"]
ORDER BY "column_name" [ASC, DESC]
• The [] means that the WHERE statement is optional. However, if a
WHERE clause exists, it comes before the ORDER BY clause. ASC
means that the results will be shown in ascending order, and DESC means
that the results will be shown in descending order. If neither is specified,
the default is ASC.
• For example, we may wish to list the contents of Table
Store_Information by dollar amount, in descending order:
store_name Sales Date

Los Angeles $1500 Jan-05-1999
Boston $700 Jan-08-1999
San Francisco $300 Jan-08-1999
San Diego $250 Jan-07-1999

• The GROUP BY Statement
• The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the
aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or more
columns.
• SQL GROUP BY Syntax:
• SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer
1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
By:-Gourav Kottawar 6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen 102

• Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each
customer.
• We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the
customers.
• We use the following SQL statement:
• SELECT Customer, SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer
Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen
By:-Gourav Kottawar
2000 103
• We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like
this:
• SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice)
FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate

• Date functions in SQL
•
• 1. SYSDATE() Sysdate to diplay system date.
•
• SQL> select sysdate from dual;
•
• SYSDATE
• ---------
• 23-NOV-10
•

• 2. LAST_DAY: Last_day to display last day of the
current/mentioned date.
•
• SQL> select last_day(sysdate) from dual;
•
• LAST_DAY
• ---------
• 30-NOV-10

• SQL> select last_day('06-nov-2010') from dual;
• LAST_DAY
• ---------
• 30-NOV-10
• 3. NEXT_DAY : to display next day of the mentioned

date,that is if today if 6th dec and today id Monday then when
will next day
• SQL> Select next_day('06-dec-2010','Monday') from
• dual;
•

4. MONTHS_BETWEEN : Calculates the months between the two
dates.
• select months_between('02-feb-2010','03-Dec-2009') from dual;
• MONTHS_BETWEEN('02-FEB-2010','03-DEC-2009')
-------------------------------------------
1.9677419
5. ADD_MONTHS adds month to the current date.
•
• SQL> select add_months(sysdate,4) from dual;
•
• ADD_MONTH
---------
• 23-MAR-11
• SQL Aggregate Functions
• SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from
values in a column.
• Useful aggregate functions:
• AVG() - Returns the average value
• COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
• FIRST() - Returns the first value
• LAST() - Returns the last value
• MAX() - Returns the largest value
• MIN() - Returns the smallest value
• SUM() - Returns the sum

• SQL COUNT(*) Example
• SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Orders;

• MANIPULATION in DATES in SQL
1. TOCHAR:
• To retrieve date in a format other than default format.
• select to_char (sysdate,'DD-MM-YY') from dual;
TO_CHAR(
--------
23-11-10
2.TO_DATE
•
• select to_date('06/07/2010','DD/MON/YY') from dual;
• TO_DATE('
• ---------
06/JUL/10
• The MAX() Function
• The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected
column.
• SQL MAX() Syntax:SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM
table_name
• SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM

Orders

• SQL MIN() Function
• The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected
column.
• SQL MIN() Syntax:SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM
table_name
• SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM

Orders

• The SUM() Function
• The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric
column.
• SQL SUM() Syntax: SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM
table_name
• SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders

SQL STRING FUNCTION
1.SUBSTR
• Table Geography region_name store_name East Boston East New York

West Los Angeles West San Diego
• Example 1:
• SELECT SUBSTR(store_name, 3)
FROM Geography
WHERE store_name = 'Los Angeles';
• Result:
• 's Angeles'
• Example 2:
• SELECT SUBSTR(store_name,2,4)
FROM Geography
WHERE store_name = 'San Diego';
• Result:
• 'an D'
• 2.LTRIM(str): Removes all white spaces from the beginning
of the string.
• 3.RTRIM(str): Removes all white spaces at the end of the
string.
• Example 1:
• SELECT TRIM(' Sample ') from tablename;
• Result:
• 'Sample'

• Example 2:
• SELECT LTRIM(' Sample ');
• Result:
• 'Sample '
• Example 3:
• SELECT RTRIM(' Sample ');
• Result:
• ' Sample'

• 4. Length(str): Find the length of the string str.
region_name store_name
East Boston
East New York
West Los Angeles
West San Diego

• Example 1:
• SELECT Length(store_name)
FROM Geography
WHERE store_name = 'Los Angeles';
• Result:
• 11

• Example 2:
• SELECT region_name, Length(region_name)
FROM Geography;
• Result:
Length(region_
region_name
name)
East 4
East 4
West 4
By:-Gourav Kottawar West 4 121
• 5.Replace(str1, str2, str3): In str1, find where str2 occurs, and
replace it with str3.
• SELECT REPLACE(region_name, 'ast', 'astern')

FROM Geography;
region_name
Eastern
Eastern
West
West
• 6. CONCAT
• CONCAT(str1, str2, str3, ...): Concatenate str1, str2, str3, and
any other strings together. Please note the Oracle CONCAT()
function only allows two arguments -- only two strings can be
put together at a time using this function. However, it is
possible to concatenate more than two strings at a time in
Oracle using '||'.

• SELECT CONCAT(region_name,store_name) FROM
Geography
WHERE store_name = 'Boston';
• Result:
'EastBoston'
• SELECT region_name || ' ' || store_name FROM

Geography
WHERE store_name = 'Boston';
• Result:
'East Boston'

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DBMS (LAB)

• SELECT - extracts data from a database

INTEGER INTEGER(p) Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision p

SMALLINT Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 5

INTEGER Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 10

nvalue Precision Storage size

Where x is the number of

Stores TRUE or FALSE values

Stores year, month, and day

Stores year, month, day, hour,

2. VARCHAR can store up to 2000 bytes of

3. If we declare datatype as VARCHAR then it will

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

• CREATE TABLE Persons

• To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a

• MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)

• SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

• Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would

ALTER-Drop column will work in Oracle 9i and above version.

• ALTER TABLE Orders

SQL> desc room; //description is not available

• The second form specifies both the column names

• INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,

• SQL INSERT INTO Example

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.

INSERT INTO Persons

• INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

• SQL SELECT Syntax

• ‘*’ Also called as Global Extraction Opearator

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

• CREATE TABLE Persons

• ALTER TABLE Persons

• SELECT * FROM table_name

• ‘*’ Also called as Global Extraction Opearator

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

• In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values.

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove‘ ;

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'

• SELECT * FROM Persons

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

• SELECT * FROM Persons

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes