Computer

Networks
 Introduction
• A computer network is a collection of two or more connected
computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people
can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape backup
drives, or CD-ROM drives.
• When networks at multiple locations are connected using services
available from phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links
to the global Internet, or conduct video conferences in real time with
other remote users.
• Every network includes:
 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.
 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless
communication between networked computers and peripherals is also
possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or
2000,
Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux.
 Evolution of
Networks
• The system was simply not advanced in one day; rather took a long
time to be an all the more incredible, productive and dependable
system. Advancement of systems administration began path back in
1969’s by the improvement of first system called ARPANET, which
prompted the improvement of web. At that point after constantly
everyday upgradation occur in the system innovation. The system has
gone through a few phases which are described below:
ARPANET (Advanced Research Agency
Network)
ARPANET was the network that became the basis for the Internet. It
was the first network that came into existence in 1969, which was
designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
and US Department of Defence (DoD). It was where a bunch of PCs
were associated at various colleges and US DoD for sharing of
information and messages and playing long separation diversions and
associating with individuals to share their perspectives.
NSFNET (National Science Federation
Network)
In mid 80’s another federal agency, NSFNET (National Science
Federation Network) created a new network which was more capable
than ARPANET and became the first backbone infrastructure for the
commercial public Internet. Its main aim was to use network only for
academic research and not for any kind of private business activity.
Later, many privately owned businesses with their very own private
systems joined with ARPANET and NSFNET to make more capable and
wide network, the Internet.
 Internet
• In the Internet, which is a network of networks, came into existence.
The internet has evolved from ARPANET. The internet is a globally
connected network system that utilizes TCP/IP to transmit
information. It allows computers of different types to exchange
information and is known as internet. The Internet is the financially
communications method on the planet, in which the following
services are instantly available:
• Email, Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
• Online movies and gaming
• Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Social networking, Online shopping, Financial services
ARPANET+NSFNET+PRIVATE NETWORKS=INTERNET
 Data Communication
Terminologies
Data means information in digital format and communication means to
exchange information between two or many users in anyways like
speaking, texting, or any other modes of the medium. So, data
communication is simply the exchange of data between two or many
users through the transmission media like twisted pair cable, coaxial
cable, optical fibers, radio wave, satellite microwave, etc.
Here are some data communication terminologies listed below:
1. Data Channel :
Channel simply means a path to carry or flow. Data channel means
the flow of data or to carry the data from one device to another. In
other words, we can say the data channel is a computer path or
medium used to transfer the data from sender to receiver.

2. Baud :
It’s actually a common measurement unit of data transfer. Baud rate
measures the rate at which the data is transferred from the sender to
the receiver in the data channel. It can be expressed in terms of bps
(bits per second). It simply determines the speed of data transfer.
3. Bits Per Second (bps) :
Its symbol is “bit/s”. It can be present in two forms i.e. bps (bits per
second) and Bps (Bytes per second). It’s also a measurement unit of
speed at which the data is transferred. Some other forms are also
present as shown in the table below:

S.No. Rate Denoted Full Form

By
1 Rate of thousand bits per second kbps Kilobits per second
2 Rate of thousand bytes per second Kbps Kilobytes per second
3 Rate of million bits per second mbps Megabits per second
4 Rate of Million bytes per second Mbps Megabytes per second
4. Bandwidth :
It’s the range of frequencies over which a communication system
works. It generally measures the amount of data that can be
transferred in a given amount of time over a data channel. It’s
the
difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies of a data
channel. The measurement unit of frequency is cycles per second i.e.
hertz.

5. DTR (Data Transfer Rates) :

It determines the rate of speed at which the data is transferred from
one point to another. Its measurement unit is bits per second (bps),
Bytes per second (Bps), or baud. In computer, data transfer is mainly
measured in Bytes per second
 Switching
Techniques
Switched communication networks are those in which data transferred
from source to destination is routed between various intermediate
nodes. Switching is the technique by which nodes control or switch
data to transmit it between specific points on a network. There are 3
common switching techniques:

• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching
• Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications
network in which two network nodes establish a dedicated
communications channel (circuit) through the network before the
nodes may communicate. ... The circuit functions as if the nodes were
physically connected as with an electrical circuit.
It is a store and forward technique.

• Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various

networks. These data chunks or “packets” allow for faster, more
efficient data transfer. Often, when a user sends a file across a
network, it gets transferred in smaller data packets, not in one piece.
In circuit switching, data is not stored.
 Transmission
In data communicationmedia
terminology, a transmission medium is a
physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals
being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
2. Unguided Media:

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No

physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.
• Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
 Wired
• As we know "wired" is the term refers to any physical medium consisting of
cables. The cables can beNetworks
copper wire, twisted pair or fiber optic. Wired network
is used to carry different forms of electrical signals from one end to the other.
The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking.
• Coaxial Cable
It has a single copper conductor in the middle. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the braided metal shield and
center conductor. The metal shield blocks outer interference
from motors, fluorescent lights, and other computers.
Coaxial cabling is extremely resistant to signal obstruction th ough it is complex to
install. It can handle great cable lengths between network devices than the
twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cables are thin coaxial and thick
coaxial.
• Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core
surrounded by many layers of protective materials.
It removes the problem of electrical obstruction by
transmitting light rather than electronic signals. This makes them
perfect for certain atmospheres which contain huge amount of
electrical interference. It has become the standard for connecting
networks between buildings because of its resistance to lighting and
moisture.
• Twisted pair Cable
Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire that connects home and many
business computers to the telephone company. To reduce crosstalk or
electromagnetic induction between pairs of wires, two
insulated copper wires are twisted around each other.
Each connection on twisted pair requires both wires.
 Wireless
Network
• As we know "Wireless" is the term refers to medium made of
electromagnetic waves (i.e. EM Waves) or infrared waves. All the wireless
devices will have antenna or sensors. Typical wireless devices include
cellular mobile, wireless sensors, TV remote, satellite disc receiver, laptops
with WLAN card etc. Wireless network does not use wires for data or voice
communication; it uses radio frequency waves as mentioned above. The
other examples are fiber optic communication link and broadband ADSL
etc.
EXAMPLES of wireless network:
1.Outdoor cellular technologies such as GSM, CDMA, WiMAX, LTE, Satellite
etc.

2.Indoor wireless technologies such as Wireless LAN(or WiFi), Bluetooth,

IrDA, Zigbee, Zwave etc.
Most commonly used transmission media in wireless networks are:
• Microwave: Microwaves are high frequency waves that can be used
to transmit data wirelessly over long distances. The microwave
transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver and atmosphere.
Microwave radiation can be used to transmit signals such as mobile
calls.

• Radio Wave: Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio
programmes. All radios today, use continuous sine waves to transmit
information(audio,video,data). WiFi that has become a common word
today also used radio wave to transmit data among connected
devices.
 Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They
cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference
between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
• Satellite: Satellite communication is a special case of microwave relay
system. Satellite communication use the synchronous satellite to relay
the radio signal transmitted from ground station. A number of
communication satellites , owned by both government and private
organizations, have been placed in stationary orbits about 22,300
miles above the earth’s surface.
 Network
Devices
MODEM
Short for modulator/demodulator, a modem is a hardware device that
allows a computer to send and receive information
over telephone lines. When sending a signal, the device converts
("modulates") digital data to an analog audio signal, and transmits it
over a telephone line. Similarly, when an analog signal is received, the
modem converts it back ("demodulates" it) to a digital signal.

Amit Kumar Pandey, PGT-CS, KV AliganjAmit Kumar Pandey,

PGT-CS, KV Aliganj
ETHERNET CARD / NIC
• A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network
interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network
interface, and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component
that connects a computer to a computer network.
• Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented
on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost
and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means
that most newer computers have a network
interface built into the motherboard.
 RJ-45
Ethernet cables come with RJ45 connectors on both ends. Because of
this, an Ethernet cable is sometimes designated as an RJ45 cable. These
cables are often used to connect computers onto Ethernet networks.
 REPEATER
Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not
amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal
bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
Hub: – It is used to connect multiple computers in a single LAN. Generally
HUBs are available with 4,8,12 ports. When a hub receives signal on its port,
it repeats the signal and forwards that signal(Broadcast) from all ports
connected to it.
There are two types of HUB
Passive HUB:- It only forwards the signal on all ports without amplifying the
signal.
Active HUB:- it forwards the signal with improvement in the quality of data
signal by amplifying it. That why such hubs need additional power supply.
Based on port type, there are two types of HUB
Ethernet HUB :- All ports have RJ-45 connectors.
Combo HUB :- Several different types of connectors such RJ-45, coaxial cable-
connector, and AUI(Attachment Unit) available as ports in such HUB.
Switch: A network switch is a computer networking device that
connects devices on a computer network to receive, process, and
forward data to the destination device.

Switch is also used to connect multiple computers together in a LAN

workgroup, just like hub.
Switches are available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports. Switch makes their
switching decisions by using application specific integrated circuits
(ASICs).
Due to switching decision capability, switch sends signal to recipient
only and that’s why switches are called as intelligent hub. In below
diagram leftmost node sending signal to rightmost node.
With a switch, multiple nodes
may transmit simultaneously: no
congestion as traffic grows. Switch

Node
Node
Connection 1 C
A
A-C

Connection 1
A-C Node
Node Connection 2 D
B B-D

Connection 2
Amit Kumar Pandey, PGT-CS, KV Aliganj B-D
Router: Router is a networking device which chooses the best optimal
path from available paths to send the signals. It interconnects different
networks. The simplest function of a router is to received packets from
one connected network and pass them to second connected network.

Amit Kumar Pandey, PGT-CS, KV Aliganj

Gateway:
a gateway is basically a device that is used for the communication
among the networks which have a different set of protocols and is
responsible for the conversion of one protocol into the other.
For any kind of workplace, the gateway is a computer system which is
responsible for routing the traffic from the main workstation to outside
network. For homes, it is responsible for giving the access to the
internet thus acting as an internet service provider.
S.NO. Router Gateway

It is a hardware device which is

responsible for receiving, analyzing and It is a device that is used for the
1. forwarding the data packets to other communication among the networks
networks. which have a different set of protocols.

The main function of a router is routing The main function of a gateway is to

3. the traffic from one network to the other. translate one protocol to the other.
 Types of
Networks
• LANs (Local Area Networks)
LANs are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a single building
or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but
often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The development
of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide
proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.
Personal Area Network (PAN) is a the computer network that connects
computers/devices within the range of an individual person. As PAN
provides a network range within a person’s range typically within a
range of 10 meters(33 feet) it is called as Personal Area Network. A
Personal Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet,
printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other
entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles etc.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a
LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more
computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It
covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-
speed connectivity.
• WANs (Wide Area Networks)
Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically
separate. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using
services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines
(both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links.
• Internet It is a network of interconnected networks.
The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope
and facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file
transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups.
• Intranet An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools,
but available only within that organization. For large organizations, an
intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate information for
employees.
 Network
Topologies
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting
lines via sender and receiver is referred to as network topology. The
various network topologies are:
Star Topology
• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through
a cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are
connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e.,
not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them.
Bus Topology
• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to a single cable. It transmits the data from one
end to another in a single direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus
topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Tree Topology
• This topology is the variation of Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data.
Differences between Star Topology and Bus
Topology
S.NO
. Star Topology Bus Topology
Star topology is a topology in which all devices are connected Bus topology is a topology where each device is connected to a
1. to a central hub. single cable which is known as the backbone.

In star topology, if the central hub fails then the whole network In a Bus topology, the failure of the network cable will cause the
2. fails. whole network to fail.

Bus topology can not effectively manage a terminator’s high amount

Management of high traffic and performance of the network is of traffic as if there is high traffic then the performance of the
3. highly dependent on the capacity of the central hub. network is affected.

4. Star topology does not have any terminator. Bus topology has a terminators at both ends of the network.

Star topology has a high implementation cost because of the

5. central hub and extra wires required for connection. Bus topology is less expensive than a star topology.

In a Bus topology, the data is transmitted slower as compared to a

6. Data transmission is faster in a star topology. star topology.

In star topology the communication between nodes is done

through a central hub, a message from the sender node In a Bus topology, the data from a sender device to a receiver device
7. reaches the central hub first then it is transmitted to the is sent directly.
receiver node.

8. Expansion is easier. Expansion of network i.e. addition of new node is difficult.

9. Fault identification and isolation are relatively easier. Fault identification and isolation are not easier.

10. Chances of data collision are less, Data collisions occur frequently
The difference between Star Topology and Tree
Topology
 S.No. Star Topology Tree Topology
Star topology is a topology in which the
nodes are connected to the central hub or Tree topology is a topology in which the nodes are
1. organized in the form of a tree.
router.

In star topology, the communication

between nodes are done through central In tree topology, the communication between nodes
2. are done through branching cable having no loops.
node i.e., hub or router.

The complexity of Star topology is really

3. simple. The complexity of Tree topology is largely complex.

The cost of star topology is lower than tree

4. topology. The cost of tree topology is high as it is densely wired.

5. Star topology is also called as star network. Tree topology is also called as hierarchical topology.

Star topology is used in LAN as setup and

6. modification is easy. Tree topology is used in WAN.
Difference between Tree Topology and Bus
Topology
S.N Tree Topology Bus Topology

In tree topology, the nodes are organized in In bus topology, each included node is connected to
1. the form of a tree. a single cable which is known as the backbone.

2. Tree topology provides high security. While security is very low in bus topology.

Tree topology is largely complex to understand Bus topology is the simplest one in terms of
3. as compared to bus topology. complexity.

Tree topology is also referred as hierarchical

4. topology. Bus topology is also known as line topology.

Tree topology is expensive as it is densely Bus topology is very less expensive as one continuous
5. wired. cable is used.

Bus topology is generally suited for LAN as

6. Tree topology is used for WAN. installation is easy.
 Internal Protocol Versions
There are currently two versions of IP.
1. IPv4: It is most widely deployed Internet protocol used to connect devices to
the Internet. IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing for a total of 232
addresses. With the growth of the internet it is expected that the number of
unused IPv4 addresses will eventually run out because every device including
computers, smart phones and game consoles-that connects to internet
requires an address.
An IPv4 address has following format: x.x.x.x, where x is calles an octet and must be
a decimal value between 0 and 255.An IPv4 address must contain three
periods and four octets.
2. IPv6 Address: A new Internet addressing system Internet Protocol version6 is
being deployed to fulfill the need for more internet addresses. IPv6 utilizes 128-
bit Internet Addresses.
The IPv6 address can have either of the following two formats:
(i) Normal IPv6 Address: This has following format:
y:y:y:y:y:y:y:y, where y is called a segment and can be
any hexadecimal value between 0 and FFFF. The segments are separated by
colons- not periods. An IPv6 normal address must have eight segment.
(ii) IPv6(Dual) Address. An IPv6(Dual) address combines an IPv6 and
IPv4 address and has the IPv6 portion of the address(indicated with
y’s) is always at the beginning, followed by the IPv4
portion(indicated with x’s).
y: y: y: y: y: y:x.x.x.x
Ex.
i. 1001:ab4:2222:4444:1111:4567:2.3.4.5
ii. ::12.13.14.15 (implies all six IPv6 segment are zero)
iii. ::1234:5678:192.168.1.1 (first four IPv6 segment are zero)
iv. 1001:ab4::192.188.2.2 (first four IPv6 segment are zero)
v. 2001:ab4::1234:5678:1.2.3.4( middle two IPv6 segment are zero)
TCP: basic idea of
retransmission
• The TCP retransmission mechanism ensures that data is reliably sent from end to
end. If retransmissions are detected in a TCP connection, it is logical to assume
that packet loss has occurred on the network somewhere between client and
server.
• Retransmission is a very simple concept. Whenever one party sends something to
the other party, it retains a copy of the data it sent until the recipient has
acknowledged that it received it. In a variety of circumstances the
sender automatically retransmits the data using the retained copy. Reasons for
resending include:
• if no such acknowledgment is forthcoming within a reasonable time, the time-
out
the sender discovers that the transmission was unsuccessful
• if the receiver knows that expected data has not arrived, and so notifies the
sender
• if the receiver knows that the data has arrived, but in a damaged condition,
and
indicates that to the sender
Network
Protocol
 HTTP
• HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. Communication
between client computers and web servers is done by sending HTTP
Requests and receiving HTTP Responses.
• HTTP is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web and
this protocol defines how messages are formatted and transmitted,
and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response
to various commands.
• For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually
sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch and
transmit the requested Web page. The other main standard that
controls how the World Wide Web works is HTML, which covers how
Web pages are formatted and displayed.
 HTTP
S
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure communication over a computer
network, and is widely used on the Internet. In HTTPS, the communication
protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS).
• The principal motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the accessed website and
protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data while in transit. It
protects against man-in-the-middle attacks. The bidirectional encryption of
communications between a client and server protects
against eavesdropping and tampering of the communication
• Historically, HTTPS connections were primarily used for payment transactions on
the World Wide Web, e-mail and for sensitive transactions in corporate
information systems. Since 2018, HTTPS is used more often by web users than the
original non-secure HTTP, primarily to protect page authenticity on all types of
websites; secure accounts; and keep user communications, identity, and web
browsing private.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for
transmitting files between computers on the Internet
over TCP/IP connections. FTP is a client-server protocol where a client
will ask for a file, and a local or remote server will provide it.
How FTP works
• FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications
channels between client and server: a command channel for
controlling the conversation and a data channel for transmitting file
content. Clients initiate conversations with servers by requesting to
download a file.
• Using FTP, a client can upload, download, delete, rename, move and
copy files on a server. A user typically needs to log on to the FTP
server, although some servers make some or all of their content
available without login, known as anonymous FTP.
POP (Post Office Protocol )
• Post Office Protocol is the primary protocol behind email
communication. POP works through a supporting email software
client that integrates POP for connecting to the remote email server
and downloading email messages to the recipient’s computer
machine.

POP uses the TCP/IP protocol stack for network connection and works
with Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for end-to-end email
communication, where POP pulls messages and SMTP pushes them
to the server. As of 2012, Post Office Protocol is in its third version
known as POP 3 and is commonly used in most email client/server
communication architecture.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and
receiving e-mail. However, since it is limited in its ability to queue messages at
the receiving end, it is usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 (Post
Office Protocol) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol), that let the user
save messages in a server mailbox and download them periodically from the
server.
• In other words, users typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-
mail and either POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail.
 TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
• TCP and IP are separate protocols that work together to ensure data
is delivered to its intended destination within a network.
Role of TCP?
• TCP enables data to be transferred between applications and devices
on a network and is used in the TCP/IP model. It is designed to break
down a message, such as an email, into packets of data to ensure the
message reaches its destination successfully and as quickly as
possible.
Role of IP?
• The IP address tells the packets the address and route so that they
reach the proper destination. It includes a strategy that empowers
portal computers on the internet-connected to arrange forward the
message after checking the IP address.
 POP3
• Post Office Protocol 3, or POP3, is the most commonly used protocol
for receiving email over the internet. This standard protocol, which
most email servers and their clients support, is used to receive emails
from a remote server and send to a local client.
• The "3" refers to the third version of the original POP protocol.
• A recipient or their email client can download mail periodically from
the server using POP3. Thus, POP3 offers a means of downloading
email from a server to the client so the recipient can view the email
offline. POP3 can be thought of as a "store-and-forward" service.
• Once the email is on the client, POP3 then deletes it from the server.
With some implementations, users or an administrator can specify
that mail be saved for some time, allowing users to download email
as many times as they wish within the specified period.
 TELNET
Telnet is a protocol that allows you to connect to remote computers
(called hosts) over a TCP/IP network (such as the internet). Using
telnet client software on your computer, you can make a connection to
a telnet server (that is, the remote host).
Examples of TELNET Clients are:
PuTTY
AbsoluteTelne
t RUMBA
NCSA Telnet
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
• Stands for "Voice Over Internet Protocol," and is often pronounced
"voip." VoIP is basically a telephone connection over the Internet. The
data is sent digitally, using the Internet Protocol (IP) instead of analog
telephone lines. This allows people to talk to one another long-
distance and around the world without having to pay long distance or
international phone charges.
• Because VoIP information is packetized and individual packets may
take different paths over the internet, VoIP technology makes use of
compression and encoding technology to make sure that packets are
correctly ordered when they reach the recipient; otherwise, the
transmission would be garbled.
 Introduction to web services
• The World Wide Web—commonly referred to as WWW, W3, or the
Web—is an interconnected system of public webpages accessible
through the Internet.
• The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is
formatted in HTML and accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the
interlinked HTML pages that can e accessed over the internet.
• Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist, invented the World Wide Web
(WWW) in 1989, while working at CERN.
 DN
S is the phonebook of the Internet.
• The Domain Name Systems (DNS)
Humans access information online through domain names, like
yahoo.com or espn.com. Web browsers interact through Internet
Protocol (IP) addresses. DNS translates domain names to IP
addresses so browsers can load Internet resources.

• Each device connected to the Internet has a unique IP address which

other machines use to find the device. DNS servers eliminate the
need for humans to memorize IP addresses such as 192.168.1.1 (in
IPv4), or more complex newer alphanumeric IP addresses such as
2400:cb00:2048:1::c629:d7a2 (in IPv6).
 Addresses on a
Network
On a network, various types of addresses play roles. Different addresses used on a
network are:
(a)Web Address(URL) (b) IP Address
Web Address(URL): A Location on a net server is called a URL(Uniform Resource
Locator). Each website has a unique address called URL. Ex. The website address or
URL for Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan is https://www.kvsangathan.nic.in.
Overview of URL:
https://www.kvsangathan.nic.in/academic/admission-guidelines

Protocol Subdomain address of server Directory web-page

• http:// or https://
The "http" stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol and is what enables
the browser to know what protocol it is going to use to access the information
specified in the domain. An "https" protocol is short for "Hypertext Transfer
Protocol Secure" and indicates that information transmitted over HTTP is encrypted
and secure. After the http or https is the colon ( : ) and two forward slashes ( // )
that separate the protocol from the remainder of the URL.
• www.
Next, "www" stands for World Wide Web and is used to distinguish the content.
This portion of the URL is not required and many times can be left out.
• kvsangathan.nic.in
Next, "kvsangathan.nic.in" is the domain name for the website. The last portion of
the domain is known as the domain suffix and is used to identify the type or
location of the website.
• academic
Next, the “academic" portion of the above URL is the directory of
where on the server the web page is located.
• admission-guidelines
It is web page stored in academic directory that will be displayed in
browser.

A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is application

software for accessing the World Wide Web. When a user requests
a web page from a particular website, the web browser retrieves the
necessary content from a web server and then displays the page on the
user's device.
Example: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox.
 Introduction to web services
Web Server:
A web server is a dedicated computer responsible for running websites
sitting out on those computers somewhere on the Internet. They are
specialized programs that circulate web pages as summoned by the
user. The primary objective of any web server is to collect, process and
provide web pages to the users.
 Web Hosting:

Web hosting is the activity of providing storage space for a website that
is connected to the Internet. When you have a company that has space
on servers and people buy space to store their websites so they can
appear on the Internet.

HTML
• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the code that is used to
structure a web page and its content.
• HTML—“HyperText Markup Language”—is the language used to tell
your web browser what each part of a website is. So, using HTML,
you can define headers, paragraphs, links, images, and more, so your
browser knows how to structure the web page you're looking at.
XML: XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
• It is a text-based markup language derived from Standard Generalized
Markup Language (SGML).
• XML tags identify the data and are used to store and organize the
data, rather than specifying how to display it like HTML tags, which
are used to display the data.
• XML is a markup language much like HTML
• XML was designed to store and transport data
• XML was designed to be self-descriptive
• XML is a W3C Recommendation
 HTML XML
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. XML stands for extensible Markup Language.
HTML is static. XML is dynamic.
XML provides framework to define markup
HTML is a markup language. languages.
HTML is not Case sensitive. XML is Case sensitive.
HTML tags are predefined tags. XML tags are user defined tags.
There are limited number of tags in HTML. XML tags are extensible.
XML tags are used for describing the data not
HTML tags are used for displaying the data. for displaying.
In HTML, closing tags are not necessary. In XML, closing tags are necessary.
HTML is used to display the data. XML is used to store data.
HTML does not carry data it just display it. XML carries the data to and from database.