COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

NETWORK : It is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.

NEED FOR NETWORKING / GOALS OF NETWORKING / APPLICATION OF NETWORKS:
Resource Sharing, Reliability, Cost factor, communication medium.
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING: Threat to Data. Difficult to setup.
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork): In 1969 the first network called
ARPANET was first developed by US department of Defense.
NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) : In mid of 1980’s NSF created a new high
capacity network called NSF Network which allowed only academic research on its network.
INTERNET : It is a worldwide network of computer networks.
DATA COMMUNICATION : Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two
or more networked or connected devices.
COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION : Sender, receiver, communication medium, the
message to be communicated, and certain rules called protocols to be followed during
communication.
DTR (Data Transfer Rate) :DTR is the amount of data in digital form that is moved from one
place to another in a given time on a network.
Bandwidth : In digital systems, bandwidth is defined in terms of the difference between the
highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-frequency signal component and it is
measured in Hertz. The greater the bandwidth of a given medium the higher is the DTR. Voice
signal has a bandwidth of 3 KHz.
Baud / bps :(Bits per second) In analog system, bandwidth is data speed in bits per second
(bps).It is the unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of a communication
channel in digital system.
Type of Data Communication :Data communication between different devices are broadly
categorised into 3 types: Simplex communication, Half-duplex communication, and Full-duplex
communication.
Simplex Communication :It is a one way or unidirectional communication between two devices
in which one device is sender and other one is receiver. Example :data entered through a
keyboard or audio sent to a speaker, IoT (Internet of Things), controlling home appliances.
Half-duplex Communication :It is two way or bidirectional communication between two devices
in which both the devices can send and receive data or control signals in both directions, but
not at the same time. Example : walkie-talkie where one can press the push-to-talk button and
talk.
Full-duplex Communication :It is two way or bidirectional communication in which both devices
can send and receive data simultaneously. Example :mobile phones and landline telephones.
MAC: stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address, also known as the physical or
hardware address, is a unique value associated with a network adapter called a NIC.
Structure of MAC address : Each MAC address is a 12-digit
hexadecimal numbers(48 bits in length), of which the first six digits
(24 bits)contain the manufacturer’s ID called Organisational Unique
Identifier (OUI) and the later six digits (24 bits)represents the serial
number assigned to the card by the manufacturer. A sample MAC
address looks like:
IP address :IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is also a unique address that
can be used to uniquely identify each node in a network.
IPV4 : IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short),is a 32 bit numeric address, written as four
numbers separated by periods, where each number is the decimal(base-10) representation for
an 8-bit binary (base-2)number and each can take any value from 0 - 255. A sample IPV4
address looks like:192:168:0:178
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IPV6: IP Address called version 6 (IPV6 in short) is 128 bits. An IPv6 address is represented
by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16)numbers separated by colons. A sample IPV6
address looks like:2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652
MAC vs IP :IP address can change if a node is removed from one network and connected to
another network. The MAC address is engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus
it is a permanent address and cannot be changed under any circumstances.
Switching techniques: Switching techniques are alternative to dedicated lines whereby data is
routed through various nodes in a network. It forms a temporary route for the data to be
transmitted. Two commonly used switching techniques are – circuit switching
and packet switching.
Circuit Switching :In circuit switching, before a communication starts, a dedicated path is
identified between the sender and the receiver. This path is a connected sequence of links
between network nodes. All packets follow the same path established during the connection.
Eg : Landline phones
Packet Switching :In packet switching, each information or message to be transmitted between
sender and receiver is broken down into smaller pieces, called packets. These packets are
then transmitted independently through the network. Different packets of the same message
may take different routes depending on availability. Eg : data transfer in LAN,WAN etc
Transmission Media :A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data
between the source (transmitter)and destination (receiver).
Guided (Wired ) Transmission : In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of
wire/cable through which data in terms of signals are propagated between the nodes. Types :
Twisted Pair Cable, Co-Axial Cable, Fibre-optic cable.
Unguided (Wireless) Transmission :In unguided transmission, data travels in air in
terms of electromagnetic waves using an antenna. They are also known as wireless media.
Types : Radio waves, Micro waves, Infrared Waves.
TWISTED PAIR CABLE :A twisted-pair consists of two copper wires twisted like
a DNA helical structure. Eg : Telephone cables
Advantages : It is Simple. It is very less expensive
Disadvantages : Its has low bandwidth capabilities making it unsuitable for broadband
application. It is incapable of carrying a signal over long distance.
Types of twisted pair cable : UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) & STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
COAXIAL CABLE : This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more
foil or wire shields separated by some kind of plastic insulator. Eg : Cable TV
Advantages : It can be used for broadband transmission. It is used as the basis for a shared
cable network.
Disadvantages : Expensive compared to twisted pair cables. These cables are not compatible
with twisted pair cables.
Types of Coaxial cable :Thicknet and Thinnet
OPTICAL FIBERS : It consists of thin strands of glass or glass like material which are so
constructed that they carry light from a source at one end of the fiber to a detector at the other
end.
Advantages : It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference. It is highly suitable for harsh
industrial environments.
Disadvantages : Installation problem. Connecting fibers is a difficult process. Light can reach
the receiver out of phase. Types of Optical Fibers : Single Node and Multinode
Radiowaves: Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 3 KHz - 1 GHz. Omni-directional,
these waves can move in all directions. These waves are used in AM(Amplitude Modulation)
and FM(Frequency Modulation) radio, television, cordless phones.

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Microwave: Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.Unidirectional, can
move in only one direction. Needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating antenna
must be in the direction of each other. Used in point-to-point communication or unicast
communication such as radar and satellite.
Infrared Waves :Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300GHz - 400THz. Very high
frequency waves. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls. Used for short-distance point-
to-point communication such as mobile-to-mobile, mobile-to-printer, remote-control-to-TV, and
Bluetooth-enabled devices to other devices like mouse, keyboards etc.
Advantages of Wireless communication :
It is cheaper than digging trenches for laying cables and maintaining repeaters.
It offers ease of communication over different terrain.
Disadvantages of Wireless communication :
It is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.
Data communication is not secure.
Modem :Modem stands for ‘Modulator DEModulator’. It refers to a device used for conversion
between analog signals and digital bits. The modem at the sender’s end acts as a modulator
that converts the digital data into analog signals. The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a
demodulator that converts the analog signals into digital data for the destination node to
understand.
Ethernet Card :Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card(NIC) is a network adapter
used to setup a wired network. It acts as an interface between computer and the network.
RJ45 :RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector that is used exclusively with
Ethernet cables for networking. It is a standard networking interface that can be seen at the
end of all network cables.
Repeater :A repeater is an analog device that works with signals on the cables to which it is
connected. The weakened signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and put back on the
cable by a repeater.
Hub :An Ethernet hub is a network device used to connect different devices through wires.
Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all the others.
Switch :A switch is a networking device that plays a central role in a Local Area Network
(LAN). Like a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple computers or communicating
devices. When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data packet
and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet.
Router :A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyse it and transmit it to
other networks. A router connects a local area network to the internet.
Gateway :Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or
going out of a network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing paths.
WIFI Card :A Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) card connects to your laptop either in your USB port or a
wider card slot. This card generally is geared to a particular Wi-Fi network, so to use it you
must be in range of a wireless Internet signal dedicated to that network. In this way, the Wi-Fi
card acts as both a receiver and transmitter.
Topology : The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its
topology. Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star and Tree.

Bus Topology :In bus topology each communicating device connects to a transmission
medium, known as bus. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are
transmitted to the length of the bus in both directions.
Advantages :
1. Cheaper and easier to maintain.
2. Short Cable Length.
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Disadvantages :
1. Less secure and less reliable.
2. Fault diagnosis is difficult.

Star Topology :In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central node,
which is a networking device like a hub or a switch.
Advantages :
1. Very effective, efficient and fast as each device is directly connected
with the central device.
2. It is very reliable.
Disadvantages :
1. Failure in a central networking device may lead to the failure of
complete network.
2. Long cable length

Tree or Hybrid Topology : It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple branches and
each branch can have one or more basic topologies like star, ring and bus.
Advantages :
1. It is extremely flexible.
2. Hybrid topology combines the benefits of
different types of topologies in one topology.
Disadvantages :
1. Design of a hybrid network is very complex.
2. Installation is a difficult process.

Types of Network :Based on the geographical

area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks are broadly categorised as PAN, LAN,
MAN, WAN
Personal Area Network (PAN):It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like
computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart phones, printers etc. All these devices lie within an
approximate range of 10 metres. A personal area network may be wired or wireless. For
example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop through USB forms a wired PAN while two
smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth technology form a wireless
PAN or WPAN.
Local Area Network (LAN) :It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablet,
mouse, printer, etc., placed at a limited distance. The geographical area covered by a LAN can
range from a single room, a floor, an office having one or more buildings in the same premise..
The connectivity is done by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, or Wi-Fi. These
types of networks can be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite high, and usually
varies from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps. These types of networks can be
extended up to 1 km.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger
geographical area like a city or a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps, but it is
considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet
services are examples of MAN. This kind of network can be extended up to 30-40 km.
Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are spread
across different geographical locations of a country or in different countries or continents. The

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Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones and millions of
LANs from different continents.
World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an ocean of information, stored in the form of
trillions of interlinked web pages and web resources. The resources on the web can be shared
or accessed through the Internet.
HTML – Hyper Text Markup Language. It is a language which is used to design standardised
Web Pages so that the Web contents can be read and understood from any computer.
XML (eXtensible Markup Language) XML is a markup language like HTML. It is designed to
carry or store data. It is possible to define new tags in XML. It allows the programmer to use
customized tags. XML is case sensitive. XML is designed to be self descriptive.
ISP : Internet Service Provider is an organization that provides services for accessing, using,
or participating in the Internet. Ex: Airtel, BSNL etc
Domain Name : Each computer server hosting a website or web resource is given a name
against its IP address. These names are called the Domain names or hostnames
corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each server.
URI – Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique address or path for each resource located on
the web. It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Every page on the web has a
unique URL.

Domain Name Resolution :Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its
corresponding IP address is called domain name resolution. It is done through a server called
DNS server.
Website : A website is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a
common domain name and published on at least one web server.Eg: www.cbse.nic.in.
Web Browser : Web browser is software program to navigate the web pages on the internet. A
browser interprets the coding language of the web page and displays it in graphic form. Eg :
Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome.
Web Server :A web server is a computer that runs websites. The basic objective of the web
server is to store, process and deliver web pages to the users. This intercommunication is
done using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Web hosting: Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post a
website or web page onto the server, which can be viewed by everyone on the Internet.
Protocol : In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties
— the sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow.
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the primary protocol used to access the
World Wide Web. HTTP is a request-response (client-server) protocol that runs over TCP. The
common use of HTTP is between a web browser (client) and a web server (server).
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol used for transferring files from one machine to
another, it also works on a client-server model.
Point to Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol which establishes a dedicated and
direct connection between two communicating devices. This protocol defines how two devices
will authenticate each other and establish a direct link between them to exchange data.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol used for email services. It uses information
written on the message header, and is not concerned with the content of the email message.
Post Office Protocol 3, or POP3, is the most commonly used protocol for receiving email over
the internet. This standard protocol, which most email servers and their clients support, is used
to receive emails from a remote server and send to a local client.

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/ Internet Protocol (IP) is a communication protocol that
uses a client-server model of communication. The IP protocol ensures that each computer or
node connected to the Internet is assigned an IP address, which is used to identify each node
independently. TCP ensures that the message or data is broken into smaller chunks, called IP
packets. TCP guarantees the delivery of packets on the designated IP address.
HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure) are a set of rules (protocol) that govern how
data can be transmitted over the WWW (World Wide Web). HTTPS encrypts the data before
transmission. At the receiver end, it decrypts to recover the original data. The HTTPS based
websites require SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) Digital Certificate.
Telnet is a protocol that allows you to connect to remote computers (called hosts) over
a TCP/IP network (such as the internet).
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), VoIP is a communication methodology designed to deliver
both voice and multimedia communications over Internet protocol.
Voice over Long- Term Evolution (VoLTE) is a standard for high-speed wireless
communication for mobile phones, including IoT and wearables.
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology that can be used to connect mobile-phones,
mouse, headphones, keyboards, computers, etc. wirelessly over a short distance. Bluetooth-
enabled devices have a low cost transceiver chip that uses unlicensed frequency band of 2.4
GHz to transmit and receive data within a range of 10 meters with a speed of 1 - 2 Mbps.
Piconet: In Bluetooth technology, the communicating devices within a range of 10 meters build
a personal area network called piconet. The devices in a piconet work in a master-slave
configuration.
WLAN is Wireless local area network (LAN), and it is a popular way to connect to the network.
The international organisation IEEE assigns numbers to each different standards of LAN. The
wireless LAN is number as 802.11.
The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects that are embedded with
sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of connecting and exchanging data
with other devices and systems over the internet.
WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)uses a larger spectrum to deliver
connections to various devices on the network. It has a higher data transfer rate and can span
over a larger area.
The first generation (1G) mobile network system came around 1982. It was used to transmit
only voice calls. The analog signals were used to carry voices between the caller and receiver.
The second generation (2G) mobile network system came around 1991. Voice calls were
transmitted in digital form thus providing improved call quality. It also enabled an additional
service to send SMS(Short Message Service) and MMS (Multimedia messages).
The third generation (3G) mobile network technology was introduced commercially around
2001. It offered both digital voice and data services. 3G provided Internet access via the same
radio towers that provide voice service to the mobile phone. It facilitated greater voice and data
capacity.
The Fouth Generation (4G) is much faster than 3G and this has revolutionised the field of
telecommunication by bringing the wireless experience to a new level altogether. 4G systems
support interactive multimedia, voice, video, wireless internet and other broadband services.
The fifth generation or 5G is currently under development. It is expected to be a milestone
development for the success of IoT and Machine to Machine (M2M) communications. 5G is
expected to allow data transfer in Gbps, which is much faster than 4G. It is expected to be able
to support all the devices of the future such as connected vehicles and the Internet of Things.
Firewall: A firewall is hardware or software based network security system. It prevents
unauthorized access (hackers, viruses, worms etc.) to or from a network.

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Cookies: Cookies are the text messages that a web server transmits to a web browser so that
the web server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site. Cookie contains the
name of the website that it has come from and a unique ID tag.
Hacking: The term was used for people who engaged themselves in harmless technical
experiments and fun learning activities.
Cracking: Cracking can be defined as a method by which a person who gains unauthorized
access to a computer with the intention of causing damage.
Cyber Crime: Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a computer and internet is used in an
illegitimate way to harm the user.
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Case Study based question : (5 Marks)

Quickdev, an IT based firm, located in Delhi is planning to set up a network for its four
branches within a city with its Marketing department in Kanpur. As a network professional, give
solutions to the questions (i) to (v), after going through the branches locations and other details
which are given below:

i) Suggest the most suitable place to install the server for the Delhi branch with a suitable
reason.
Ans: As per 80-20 rule server must be installed in Branch D, as it has maximum number of
computers.

ii) Suggest an ideal layout for connecting all these branches within Delhi.

Ans. Star Topology

iii) Which device will you suggest, that should be placed in each of these branches to efficiently
connect all the computers within these branches ? Justify
Ans. Switch is the device used to connect several computers together with dedicated
bandwidth

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iv) Delhi firm is planning to connect to its Marketing department in Kanpur which is
approximately 300 km away. Which type of network out of LAN, WAN or MAN will be formed ?
Justify your answer.
Ans. WAN – as the network is spread across different geographical locations of the country

v) Suggest a protocol that shall be needed to provide help for transferring of files between
Delhi and Kanpur branch.
Ans. FTP
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DATABASE CONCEPTS

File : A file in a file system is a container to store data in a computer.

Limitations of File system :

(A) Difficulty in Access : Files themselves do not provide any mechanism to retrieve data.
(B) Data Redundancy : Redundancy means same data are duplicated in different places
(files).
(C) Data Inconsistency : Data inconsistency occurs when same data maintained in different
places do not match.
(D) Data Isolation : In a more complex system where data files are generated by different
person at different times, files being created in isolation may be of different formats.
(E) Data Dependence : Data are stored in a specific format or structure in a file. If the
structure or format itself is changed, all the existing application programs accessing that file
also need to be changed.
(F) Controlled Data Sharing : It is not possible to give different access control for the data for
different users.
DBMS :A database management system (DBMS) or database system in short, is a software
that can be used to create and manage databases. Some examples of open source and
commercial DBMS include MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Microsoft Access,
MongoDB.
Database Schema : Database Schema is the design of a database. It is the skeleton of the
database that represents the structure (table names and their fields/columns), the type of data
each column can hold, constraints on the data to be stored (if any), and the relationships
among the tables.
Data Constraint :Sometimes we put certain restrictions or limitations on the type of data that
can be inserted in one or more columns of a table. This is done by specifying one or more
constraints on that column(s) while creating the tables. Constraints are used to ensure
accuracy and reliability of data in the database.
Meta-data or Data Dictionary : The database schema along with various constraints on the
data is stored by DBMS in a database catalog or dictionary, called meta-data. A meta-data is
data about the data.
Database Instance : When we define database structure or schema, state of database is
empty i.e. no data entry is there. After loading data, the state or snapshot of the database at
any given time is the database instance.
Query: A query is a request to a database for obtaining information in a desired way. Query
can be made to get data from one table or from a combination of tables.

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Data Manipulation :Modification of database consists of three operations viz. Insertion,
Deletion or Update.
Database Engine :Database engine is the underlying component or set of programs used by a
DBMS to create database and handle various queries for data retrieval and manipulation.
RDBMS : The most commonly used data model is Relational Data Base Model where data is
stored in the form of tables called as relations.
ATTRIBUTE: The columns of a relation are the attributes which are also referred as fields.
TUPLE: Each row of data in a relation (table) is called a tuple.
DOMAIN: It is a set of values from which an attribute can take a value in each row. Usually, a
data type is used to specify domain for an attribute.
DEGREE: The number of attributes(columns) in a relation is called the Degree of the relation.
CARDINALITY: The number of tuples(rows) in a relation is called the Cardinality of the
relation.
Key :Keys are an important part of a relational database and a vital part of the structure of a
table. They help enforce integrity and help identify the relationship between tables.
Primary Key: A column or set of columns that uniquely identifies a row within a table is called
primary key.
Composite Primary Key : If no single attribute in a relation is able to uniquely distinguish the
tuples, then more than one attribute are taken together as primary key. Such primary key
consisting of more than one attribute is called Composite Primary key.
Candidate Key: Candidate keys are set of fields (columns with unique values) in the relation
that are eligible to act as a primary key.
Alternate Key: Out of the candidate keys, after selecting a key as primary key, the remaining
keys are called alternate key.
Foreign Key: A non-key attribute in the current table which is a primary key of another table is
called foreign key.
SQL : Structured Query Language (SQL) is the most popular query language used by major
relational database management systems such as MySQL, ORACLE, SQL Server, etc.
DDL (Data Definition Language) includes SQL statements that allows us to write statements
for defining, modifying and deleting relation schemas. Ex :Create table, Alter table and Drop
table.
DML (Data Manipulation Language) includes SQL statements that allows us to write
statements for using a database means either insertion of new data, removal of existing data
or modification of existing data in the database. Ex :insert, update and delete.
Data type of Attribute : Data type of an attribute indicates the type of data value that an
attribute can have.
Commonly used SQL Constraints
Constraint Description
NOT NULL Ensures that a column cannot have NULL values where NULL means
missing/ unknown/not applicable value.
UNIQUE Ensures that all the values in a column are distinct/unique
DEFAULT A default value specified for the column if no value is provided
PRIMARY The column which can uniquely identify each row/record in a table.
KEY
FOREIGN The column which refers to value of an attribute defined as primary
KEY key in another table