Lec 6 7&8

Chapter Three
Mobile Radio Channel

Modeling and Mitigations
Topics:
– Introduction to wireless channels
– Factors affecting wireless channels
– Propagation Models
– Channel impairment mitigation techniques 1
Tawetu A. September, 2023
Introduction to wireless channels
 Wireless radio channel poses several challenges as a medium for
reliable high speed communication.
 It is susceptible for noise, interference, and other impediments.
 The impediments change over time in unpredictable ways due to

user movement.
 Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable, radio

channels are extremely random and also do not offer easy
analysis.
 So modeling the radio channels has been historically the most

difficult part of mobile radio system design.
2
Introduction…..
• In wireless communications, information is transmitted
by radiating a modulated electromagnetic wave at a
certain carrier frequency by means of a transmit antenna
and picking up energy of the radiated wave by means of
a receive antenna.
• The behavior of the radio waves is determined by the
propagation environment according to Maxwell’s
equations.
• Except for free-space propagation, the wave interacts
with dielectric or conducting objects.
• These interactions are usually classified as reflection,
scattering, and diffraction.
• interacting objects are called as “scatters”.
3
• The characteristics of wireless signal changes as it
travels from the transmitter antenna to the receiver
antenna.
• These characteristics depend upon the:
– distance between the two antennas,
– the path(s) taken by the signal, and
– the environment (buildings and other objects)

around the path
Tawetu A. September, 2023 4

Factors Affecting Wireless Signal Transmission
 Propagation path-loss: The strength of radio wave decreases as the distance
between the transmitter and receiver increases;(attenuation)
 Occurs over a large distance (100-1000m)
 Shadowing: caused by obstacles b/n the TX and RX that attenuates signal power
through absorption, reflection, scattering and diffraction.
 Occurs over a distance 10-100m
 Reflection: When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges
upon another medium having different electrical properties, the wave is
partially reflected and partially transmitted;
 Diffraction : Radio wave bends when it passes around an edge or
through a slit. This bending is called diffraction;
 Scattering: When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected
energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering;
 Doppler effect: When radio wave travels between two objects, the
wavelength changes if one or both of them are moving. The Doppler effect is
observed whenever the source of waves is moving with respect to an observer
5
Factors Affecting Wireless Signal Transmission……..
Multipath Propagation
• Fig. Radio wave Propagation mechanisms in an outdoor and indoor

areas Tawetu A. September, 2023 6
Propagation Models
• Propagation Model: predict the mean received signal strength at a
distance from the TX, and the variability of the signal strength.
• Large Scale Propagation Model: to predict signal strength over
large TX-RX distance (several hundreds or thousands of meters).
• Small scale Propagation Model: characterizes the rapid fluctuations
of the received signal strength over short distance (a few wavelengths)
or short time durations.
Fig: Large and Small Scale Fading 7

• The profile of received signal can be obtained from that of the
transmitted signal only if we have a model of the medium
between the two.
• This model of the medium is called channel model.
• In general, the power profile of the received signal can be
obtained by convolving the power profile of the transmitted
signal with the impulse response of the channel.
• Convolution in time domain is equivalent to multiplication in
the frequency domain.
• Therefore, the transmitted signal x, after propagation through
the channel H becomes y:
Y(f)=H(f)*X(f)+n(f)
Here H(f) is channel response, and n(f) is the noise.
Note that X,Y, H, and n are all functions of the signal frequency f.
8
The three key components of the channel response
are path loss, shadowing, and multipath
•Large Scale Fading = Shadowing + Path Loss

•Small Scale Fading = Multipath + Shadowing + Path Loss
Path Loss
• Path loss is the phenomenon which occurs when the received signal
becomes weaker and weaker due to increasing distance between
mobile and base station.
• Path loss is also influenced by:
terrain contours (topography)
environment (urban or rural, vegetation and foliage),
propagation medium (dry or moist air),
the distance between the transmitter and the receiver, and
the height and location of antennas.
• Path loss in decreasing order:
Urban area (large city)
Urban area (medium and small city)
Suburban area
Open area
Definition of path loss :
PL(dB) = 10 log Pt/Pr
Free Space Propagation Model
•The free space propagation model is usually used to predict
received signal strength, when the transmitter and receiver have a
clear, unobstructed line-of-sight (LoS) path between them.
Path loss in free space:
PL(dB) = 32.45+20log10fc(MHz)+ 20log10d(km)

Where fc is the carrier frequency
•It should be noted that this simple formula is valid only for
land mobile radio systems close to the base station.
Ground reflection (Two- ray) Model
• Ground reflection (Two- ray) Model is a model that has
been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the
large scale signal strengths
Where: hb is base station height and

hm is mobile station height

• Note that there are three major differences from the previous
formula.
 First, the antenna heights have effect.
 Second, the wavelength is absent and
 Third, the exponent on the distance is 4.
• In general, a common empirical formula for a large scale path loss
is:

Path loss exponents for different environments

Shadowing
• If there are any objects (such buildings or trees) along the
path of the signal, some part of the transmitted signal is lost
through absorption, reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
• This effect is called shadowing.
• The net path loss becomes:
• Χ represents the effect of shadowing.

• As a result of shadowing, Measured signal levels (power
received) at the points that are at the same distance d from
the transmitter may be different and have a log-normal
distribution.
• This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing.
Most of radio propagation models are derived using a
combination of analytical and empirical methods
Different models exist for different types of radio links.
Types of Models for radio propagation:
Models for outdoor attenuations.
Obstacles varies from simple earth terrain to high mountains and
including the presence of trees buildings and others
Models for indoor attenuations.
Models for environmental attenuations.

Outdoor Propagation Models
• Propagation models that are available to predict path l
considering the terrain profile
Longley –Rice Model

Okumura Model
Hata Model
COST-231(PCs extention to Hata) Model
Walfisch and Bertoni Model

Longley –Rice Model
Applicable to point to point Comm. systems in
freq. range of 40Mhz to 60Ghz over different
kinds of terrain
The median transmission loss is predicted using
the path geometry of the terrain profile and the
refractivity of the troposphere
Primary the two-ray ground reflection model is
used to predict signal strength with in the radio
horizon
Diffraction losses are estimated
• The Longley- Rice model is also available as a
computer program to calculate large-scale median
transmission loss relative to free space loss over
irregular terrain for frequencies b/n 20 MHz and 10
GHz.
• For a given transmission path, the program takes as its
input the transmission frequency, path length,
polarization, antenna heights, surface refractivity,
effective radius of earth, ground conductivity and
ground dielectric constant
 Shortcomings of Longley- Rice model are , Multipath

, effects of environment and buildings are not
considered
Okumura’s Model
Okumura’s Model is considered to be among the simplest and best
in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature cellular &
land mobile radio systems.
• Used for signal prediction in Urban areas.
• Frequency range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (Although it is extrapolated up to
3000 MHz.)
• Distances from 1 Km to 100 Km and base station height from 30 m to
1000m
• Model based on measured data and does not provide analytical
explanation
Path loss using Okumura’s Model
Where
LF50 is the percentile value or median value
LF is free space propagation loss
Amu is the median attenuation relative to freespace
G(hte) is the base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) is the mobile antenna height gain factor 21
• Plots of Amu (f,d) for a wide range of frequencies is as shown
below

• Plots of GAREA for a wide range of frequencies is
as shown below

Okumura also found that G(hte) varies at a rate of 20dB/decade and
G(hre) varies at a rate of 10dB/decade for heights less than 3m
Example

Solution
Using the equation for Okumura’s path loss

Hata Model for Urban Areas
Is an Empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by
Okumura
• Valid for 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz, Transmission height up to 200m and
link distance less than 20 Km.
• The standard formula for median path loss in Urban areas is given by
Where
– fc (Frequency in Mhz) 150 to 1500 MHz
– hb (Height of Transmitter Antenna) 30 to 200m
– hm(Height of Receiving Antenna) 1 to 10 m
– d (separation in T-R Km)
– CH correction factor for effective antenna height

The correction factor for effective antenna height which is a function
of coverage area
• For small or medium sized city
dB
For large cities

Hata Model For Suburban Areas
Applicable to the transmission just out of cities and rural areas.
• Where man made structure are there but not high.
• 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz.
• The path loss in the above equation is modified
LSU= Path loss in suburban areas

LU = Average path loss in urban
areas
f = Transmission frequency
Hata Model For Open Areas
• Applicable to the transmissions in open areas where no obstructions
block the transmission link.

COST -231 - Extension to Hata Model
• Extensions of Hata model to 2Ghz
• Where
• The COST -231 extention of the Hata Model is restricted to the

following parameters

Walfisch and Bertoni Model
• Predicts the signal strength in a street level considering the impact of
rooftops and building height by using diffraction
• The path loss to be a product of three factors
• Where P0 represents the free space path loss between isotropic

antennas
• Q2 is the signal loss in the rooftop signal due to the row of buildings
which immediately shadow the receiver at street level
• P1 determines signal loss from rooftop to the street
•
In dB, the path loss is given by
Where
Lo - free path loss
Lrts - rooftop-to street diffraction and scatter loss
Lms - multi screen diffraction due to the rows of
buildings

Indoor Propagation Models
• Indoor propagation is dominated by the same
mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and
scattering. However, conditions are much more variable
The indoor channel differs from the traditional mobile
radio channel in two aspects
1. The distance covered are much smaller
2. The variability of the environment is much greater for a
much smaller range of T-R separation distances
• The propagation within a building is strongly influenced

by specific features such as the layout of the building,
the construction materials and the building type.
Some of the key loss models are
1. Partition losses(Same floor)

 Hard partition(part of the building)
 Soft partition (moveable)
2. Partition losses b/n floors
3. Log-distance path loss models
4. Ericson multiple break point model
5. Attenuation factor model (building type)

Partition losses (Same floor)

Partition losses b/n floors

Log-distance path loss models

Ericson multiple break point model

Attenuation factor model

Reading Assignment
• Models For Environmental Attenuations
– Rain Attenuation Model
– ITU Rain Attenuation Model
– ITU Rain Attenuation Model For Satellites
– Crane Global Model
– Crane Two Component Model
– Crane Model For Satellite Paths
– DAH Model

Small Scale Fading and Multipath
Small scale fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuation of the
amplitude of the radio signal over a short period of time or
travel distance, so that large scale path loss effects may be
ignored
• It is caused by interference between two or more versions of
the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly
different times
• The Multipath waves combine at the receiver antenna to give
resultant signal which can vary in amplitude and phase
• Presence of reflectors, scattering and terminal motion results

in multiple copies being received at the mobile terminal
distorted in amplitude, phase and with different angle of
arrivals
They can add constructively or destructively ----> fluctuations in
the received signal
a b
No direct
Diffracted path
wave Reflected
wave
a a
Antenna y=a+b
b Antenna y=0
b
a & b are in phase a & b are out of phase by 
Complete fading when

2d/ = n, d is the path difference
• Physical Factors Influencing Small Scale fading
1. Multipath propagation: The presence of reflecting objects
and scaterers in the channel creates a constantly changing
environment that dissipates the signal energy in Amplitude ,
Phase, and Time .
• The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath
components cause fluctuation in signal strength including
small scale fading and signal distortion
• Even a slight change in position may result in a significant
difference in phases of the signals and so in the total
received power.
2.Speed of the mobile
The relative motion of the receiver and transmitter results in
random frequency modulation due to different Doppler
shifts on the multipath components
46
3. Speed of Surrounding objects
• If surrounding objects in the channel are in motion, they induce a
time varying Doppler shift on multipath components .
• If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile
then this effect dominates the small scale fading. Otherwise,
motion of surrounding objects may be ignored and only speed of
the mobile will be considered
4.Transmission bandwidth of the signal

• If the transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the bandwidth
of the multipath channel, the received signal will be distorted, but
the small scale fading will not be significant
• If the transmitted signal bandwidth has a narrow bandwidth as
compared to the channel, the amplitude of the signal will change
rapidly but the received signal will not be distorted in time.
Doppler effect
• Can be caused by
– the speed of mobile
– speed of surrounding objects
 Mobile moving towards the transmitter with speed v:
a maximum positive Doppler shift
v
f max

d

– The n-th path, moving within an angle n , has a Doppler
shift of n-th path
v
n f n
cos n 

d
v
 If the mobile is moving away from the transmitter, the Doppler

shift is negative
More specifically
• Velocity of the Mobile (or velocity of objects in the channel) and

the baseband signaling determines whether a signal undergoes fast or
slow fading
Types of Small scale fading BS
Flat fading BC
Multi path time delay
BS
Frequency selective fading BC
Fading
TS
Fast fading TC
Doppler spread
TS
Slow fading
TC
Coherence bandwidth BC = range of frequencies over which the channel can be flat (i.e a
channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and
1
linear phase) Bc  T=rms delay spread
T
Tc: Time interval over which channel impulse responses are highly correlated
1 Spectral broadening BD is a measure for the rate of changes of
TC  the mobile radio channel due to Doppler effects
BD Tawetu A. September, 2023 50
Multipath delay spread
• Multiple copies of the signal arrive with different delays
– May cause signal smearing, inter-symbol interference (ISI)
• While the delay spread is a natural phenomenon, we can define the
coherence bandwidth as a measure derived from the RMS delay
spread
1
Bc  T(rms delay spread)
T
Coherence bandwidth Bc = statistical measure of the range of
frequencies over which the channel can be considered to be flat
(i.e., the channel passes all the spectral components with approx.
constant gain and linear phase response)

Inter Symbol Interference(ISI)
• Delay spread (frequency-selective fading), in which a bit arrives at the
receiver at different times because of the different paths taken, causing bits to
run into each other and thus cause inter-symbol interference (ISI).
Fig. Inter Symbol Interference representation

Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
 Flat Fading: Amplitude varying channels (Narrow band channels)
If
BS  BC
TS   T
 Causes deep fade
 Frequency Selective Fading (Wideband channels)
If
BS  BC
TS   T
 Causes intersymbol Interference
 Frequency selective fading are much more difficult to model than flat fading
 A common thumb rule is: a channel is flat fading if Ts>= 10 στ and frequency selective fading if Ts <
10στ.
 53
Fading Effects Due Doppler Spread
 Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal changes as compared
to the rate of change of the channel
relative to 1uV (db)
Fast
fading
Signal strength
30
20
10
0 Slow fading
0 5 10 15 20 25Distance ()
 Doppler spread and coherence time

9 Tc: Time interval over which channel impulse
Tc = 2
16 p fD-max responses are highly correlated
• Fast fading – channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration TS  TC
BS  BD
• Slow fading – channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted symbol bandwidth
TS  TC
BS  BD 54
Doppler spread and Coherence time
Doppler spread and Coherence time are parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel.
Time domain view Freq domain view
signal 1
Signal
signal 2
Symbol Time (TS) Signal bandwidth (BS)
channel 1
Channel
channel 2
channel 3
Coherence Time (TC) Doppler spread (BD)

Summary of channel fading characteristics
Symbol period of transmitting symbol
Transmitted baseband signal bandwidth

TS BS Freq. sel. Freq. sel.
Fast slow
Flat Flat
slow fast BC
T Flat Flat
Fast Slow
Freq sel. Freq sel.
slow fast BD BS
TS
TC
Transmitted baseband signal bandwidth
Transmitted symbol period

Mobile radio channel impairment
mitigation techniques
Techniques which can be used independently or in tandem

to improve signal quality and link performance
1.Diversity
2.Equalization
3.Channel Coding
Diversity: It is the technique used to compensate for
fading channel impairments. It is implemented by using
two or more receiving antennas. Diversity is usually
employed to reduce the depth and duration of the fades
experienced by a receiver in a flat fading channel. These
techniques can be employed at both base station and
mobile receivers.

Equalization: is a technique used for compensating Inter
Symbol Interference by tracking the time varying
characteristics of mobile channel. An Equalizer within a
receiver compensates for the average range of expected
channel amplitude and delay characteristics.
Equalizers must be adaptive as the channel is generally
unknown and time varying. l

Channel coding: It is the technique which improves
mobile communication link performance by adding
redundant data bits in the transmitted message. In this
technique, to the baseband portion of the transmitter, a
channel coder maps a digital message sequence into
another specific containing greater number of bits than
originally contained in the message. The coded message is
then modulated for transmission in the wireless channel.

DIVERSITY
• A diversity scheme is a method that is used to develop
information from several signals transmitted over independent fading
paths.
• It is a very simple concept where in one path undergoes a deep

fade and another independent path may have a strong signal.
• As there is more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous
and average SNRs at the receiver may be improved, often as much as
20-30 dB

D iv e rs ity
M a c ro s c o p ic d iv e rs ity M ic ro s c o p ic d iv e rs ity
• Prevents Large Scale fading. • Prevents Small Scale fading.
• Large Scale fading is caused by • Small Scale fading is caused by

shadowing due to variation in both multiple reflections from the
the terrain profile and the nature of surroundings. It is characterized by
the surroundings. deep and rapid amplitude
Large Scale fading is log normally fluctuations which occur as the
distributed signal. mobile moves over distances of a
few wavelength.
• This fading is prevented by
selecting an antenna which is not • This fading is prevented by
shadowed when others are, this selecting an antenna which gives a
allows increase in the signal-to-
strong signal that mitigates this
noise ratio.
small signal fading effect.
62
Diversity
Polo rization Diversity Space Diversity Fre quency Diversity Tim e Diversity
Sele ctio n Divers ity Scannin g Diversity Maxim al Ratio Combin ing Equal Gain Combin ing
Space Diversity
• A method of transmission or reception, or both, in which the effects of
fading are minimized by the simultaneous use of two or more physically
separated antennas, ideally separated by one half or more wavelengths.
• Signals received from spatially separated antennas on the mobile would
have essentially uncorrelated envelopes for antenna separations of one
half wavelength or more.
Generalized block diagram

of space diversity.
• In this technique multiple antennas are strategically spaced and connected

to common receiving system. While one antenna sees a signal null, one of
the other antennas may see a signal peak, and the receiver is able to select
the antenna with the best signal at any time.
64
Space Diversity
Selection Diversity Scanning Diversity Maximal Ratio Combining Equal Gain Combining

Selection Diversity
Principle :
Selecting the best signal among all the signals received from
different braches at the receiving end.
Where ┌ = Average SNR of each branch
And γ = instantaneous SNR of each branch
The probability that all M independent diversity branches receive signals which are
less than a threshold γ is M

  
Pr ( 1,...... M   )  1  e 
 PM ( )
 
If a signal branch achieves SNR> γ then the probability that SNR > γ for one or
more branches is  M
  
Pr ( i   )  1 - PM ( )  1  1  e 

 
The average SNR improvement using selection diversity can be
found  M
1

 k
k 1
66
Selection Diversity Example
Assuming four branch diversity is used, where each branch
receives an independent Rayleigh fading signal. If the average
SNR is 20 dB, determine the probability that the SNR will drop
below 10 dB. Compare this with the case of a single receiver
without diversity.
γ = 10 dB
Г = 20 dB
With Selection Diversity
P4 (10dB)  1  e  
0.1 4
 0.000082
Without Diversity
P1 (10dB)  1  e 0.1   1
 0.095
Conclusion
•Selection diversity offers an average improvement in the
link margin without requiring additional transmitter power
or sophisticated receiver circuitry.
•Selection diversity is easy to implement because all that is

needed is a side monitoring station and an antenna switch at
the receiver.
•However it is not an optimal diversity technique because it

does not use all of the possible branches simultaneously.

Scanning Diversity
Principle :
Scanning all the signals in a fixed sequence until the one with SNR more than a predetermined threshold is
identified.
Consider M independent Rayleigh fading channels available at receiver.
• This method is very simple to implement, requiring only one receiver.
• The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those obtained by the other methods.

Maximal Ratio Combining
Principle : Combining all the signals in a co-phased and weighted manner so as to have the highest
achievable SNR at the receiver at all times. It has the advantage of producing an out put with an
acceptable SNR even when none of the individual signals are them selves acceptable
Consider M branches, the probability that γM is less than some SNR threshold γ
for Maximal ratio combining is
Hence the mean SNR is

Pr  M    
  M
  k 1
 p( M ) d M  1  e 
 k  1!
k 1
0
. M M
 M    i     M 70
i 1 i 1
Equal Gain Combining
Principle :
Combining all the signals in a co-phased manner with unity
weights for all signal levels so as to have the highest achievable
SNR at the receiver at all times.
• In certain cases it is not convenient to provide for the

variable weighting capability. In such cases the branch weight are
all set to unity but the signals from each branch are co-phased to
provide equal gain combining diversity
• Thus The probability of producing an acceptable signal from a

number of unacceptable inputs is still retained.
• The performance is marginally inferior to maximal ratio

combining and superior to selection Diversity.
Frequency Diversity
Principle :
The same information signal is transmitted and received simultaneously
on two or more independent fading carrier frequencies.
• The rational behind this technique is that frequencies separated by
more than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will not
experience the same fade.
• The probability of simultaneous fade will be the product of the
individual fading probabilities.
• This is often employed in microwave LOS links which carry several
channels in a frequency division multiplex mode(FDM).
• This technique not only requires spare bandwidth, but also requires
that there be as many receivers as there are channels used for the
frequency diversity.
 However, for critical traffic, the expense may be justified.
72
Time Diversity
Principle :
The signals representing the same information are sent
over the same channel at different times.
– Time Diversity repeatedly transmits information at

time spacing that exceeds the coherence time of the
channel.
– Multiple repetitions of the signal will be received

with multiple fading conditions, thereby providing
for diversity.

Polarization Diversity
Principle: Polarization diversity relies on the decorrelation of
the two receive ports to achieve diversity gain. The two receive
ports must remain cross-polarized.
– At the base station, space diversity is considerably less

practical than at the mobile because the narrow angle of
incident fields requires large antenna spacing.
– The comparatively high cost of using space diversity at the

base station prompts the consideration of using orthogonal
polarization.
– Polarization diversity provides two diversity branches and

allows the antenna elements to be co-located.
74
* Effective Diversity is obtained with a Correlation Coefficient below 0.7
Theoretical Model for Polarization Diversity
Assuming that a signal is transmitted from a mobile station
with vertical( or horizontal) polarization, and is received by a
polarization diversity antenna with two branches at the base station.
The measured horizontal and vertical polarization paths

between a mobile and a base station are uncorrelated.
The decorrelation for the signal in each polarization is caused by

multiple reflections in the channel between the mobile and base station
antenna.
This results in signals of different amplitudes and phase reflections.
In reality there is some dependence of the received polarization on the

transmitted polarization.

Theoretical Model for Polarization Diversity(Cont’d)………
v1 , v2 -Two antenna elements

Which make ±α angle
(polarization angle) with the Y-
axis.
A mobile station is located in

the direction of offset angle β
from the main beam direction
of the diversity antenna.

Some of the vertically polarized signals transmitted from the mobile
station are converted to the horizontally polarized signal, because of
multipath propagation.
Horizontally Polarized Component x  r1 cos(t  1 )
Vertically Polarized Component y  r2 cos(t   2 )
Where x and y are signals received when β= 0, and assuming that r1

and r2 have independent Rayleigh distribution, Φ1 and Φ2 have
independent, uniform distribution.
No cross coupling between the diversity antenna elements is assumed.
 To find the expression for th Correlation Coefficient ρ
The received signal values at v1 and v2 are
1  x sin  cos   y cos 
2   x sin  cos   y cos  77
Substituting x and y
1  (r1a cos 1  r2b cos 2 ) cos t  (r 1a sin 1  r2b sin 2 ) sin t
2  (r1a cos 1  r2b cos 2 ) cos t  (r 1a sin 1  r2b sin 2 ) sin t
Where a  sin  cos 
b  cos 
Amplitudes for v1 and v2 are
R1  ( r1a cos 1  r2b cos  2 ) 2  ( r1a sin 1  r2b sin  2 ) 2
R2  (  r1a cos 1  r2b cos  2 ) 2  (  r1a sin 1  r2b sin  2 ) 2

Therefore,
R1  r12 a 2  r22b 2  2r1r2 ab cos(1   2 )
R2  r12 a 2  r22b 2  2r1r2 ab cos(1   2 )
The correlation coefficient is defined as follows
R12 .R22  R12 R22



 ( R12 ) 2  R22
2


 ( R12 ) 2  R12
2



  
78
Assumptions
R12  r12 a 2  r22b 2  R22
 
R12 .R22  r12 a 2  r22b 2  2r1r2 ab cos(  2 ) r12 a 2  r22b 2  2r1r2 ab cos(  2 ) 
R12 .R22  r14 a 2  r24 b 2

( R12 ) 2  r12 a 2  r22b 2  2r1r2 ab cos(   2 ) 
2
 r14 a 4  r24 b 4  4 r12 r22 a 2b 2
 R22 
2
Substituting the values

 r 4  r 2 2
a 4   r 4  r 2 2
b 4  2 r 2 r 2 a 2b 2
  1 1
  2 2
 1 2
 r 4  r 2 2
a 4   r 4  r 2 2
b 4  2 r 2 r 2 a 2b 2
 1 1
  2 2
 1 2
79
Because r1 and r2 follow Rayleigh distribution
2 2
r
1
4
4 r 1
2 2
r
2
4
4 r 2
Let
r22
2 
r
1
then ρ will be
2 2
 a  b    tan  cos    
2 2 2 2
   2 2    2 
 a  b    tan  cos    
2
Where Г is the cross polarization discrimination of the propagation

path between a mobile and a base station.
Equalization
Equalization: is a technique used for compensating Inter Symbol
Interference. An Equalizer within a receiver compensates for
the average range of expected channel amplitude and delay
characteristics. Equalizers must be adaptive as the channel is
generally unknown and time varying.
ISI has been recognized as the major obstacle to high speed data
transmission over mobile radio channels.
81
• Equalizers that track the time varying
characteristics of the mobile channel are
called adaptive equalizer
Operating modes of adaptive equalizer

1) Training mode
2) Tracking Mode

Training Mode
• Initially, a known, fixed length training sequence is sent by
the transmitter so that the receiver’s equalizer may average to
a proper setting. The training sequence is a pseudo random
signal or a fixed, prescribed bit pattern. Immediately
following the training sequence, the user data is sent.
• The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at

the receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficients in the
worst possible channel conditions.
• Therefore when the training sequence is finished, the filter
coefficients are near their optimal values for reception of user
data. An adaptive equalizer at the receiver uses a recursive
algorithm to evaluate the channel and estimate filter
coefficients to compensate for the channel.
• Equalizers usually require periodic retraining in order to

maintain effective ISI cancelation
Tracking mode
When the data of the users are received, the adaptive
algorithm of the equalizer tracks the changing channel. As
a result of this, the adaptive equalizer continuously
changes the filter characteristics over time.
•When an equalizer has been properly trained, it is said to
have converged.
Three factors affect the time spanning over which an

equalizer converges: equalizer algorithm, equalizer
structure and time rate of change of the multipath radio
channel

 Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at IF in a receiver
y( t )  x( t )  f ( t )  n ( t )
f (t): complex conjugate of f(t)
*
b
nb(t): baseband noise at the input of the equalizer
heq(t): impulse response of the equalizer
85
dˆ t   y t  heq t 
 xt  f  t  heq t   nb t  heq t 
 δ t goalofEqualization
Since the desired output of the equalizer is x(t), In order to force d^(t) =
x(t), assuming nb(t) = 0,
f 
t  heq t  must be equal to δ t   F  f H eq  f   1

 This equation indicates that an Equalizer is an inverse filter of the channe

 If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the
frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong
frequencies in the received frequency spectrum
 For a time-varying channel, an adaptive equalizer is needed to track the
channel variations so that the above equation is approximately satisfied
86
Basic Structure of Adaptive Equalizer
•Transversal filter with N delay elements, N+1 taps, and N+1 tunable
complex multipliers(weights)
The adaptive algorithm is

controlled by the error signal ek
•The adaptive algorithm uses ek to minimize a cost function and updates

the equalizer weights in a manner that iteratively reduces cost
function
• Up on reaching convergence, the adaptive algorithm freezes the filter
weights until the error signal exceeds an acceptable level or until a
new training sequence Tawetu
is sentA. September, 2023 87
Solutions for Optimum Weights of the above Figure
Based on Classical equalization theory : The most common cost function
is the MSE b/n the desired signal and the output of the equalizer
Error signal
ek  xk  y k k  xk  k y k
T T
where yk  yk .... yk  N 

T
yk 1 yk 2 Input signal
to the equalizer
k  ω0 k .... ωNk 
T
ω1k ω2 k
Weight vector
To compute the MSE at time instant k
2
ek  xk2   kT yk ykT  k  2 xk ykT  k
•Expected MSE over k (which in practice amounts to computing a
time average )
  E ek  Ex  w Ey y w  2Ex y w
2 2
k k
T
k
T
k k k
T
k k
The filter weights Wk are not included in the time average, it is assumed that they have
88
converged to the optimum values and are not varying with time

• The cross correlation P between the desired signal d x k k
and the input signal yk is defined as
p  E  xk y k   E  xk yk xk yk 1 xk yk  2 .... xk yk  N 
T
• The input correlation matrix is defined

 yk2 yk yk 1 yk yk  2 .... yk yk  N 
 
 
R  E yk yk  E
*  yk 1 yk
 ....
yk21 yk 1 yk 2 y y
.... k 1 k  N 
.... .... .... .... 
 2 
 yk  N yk yk  N yk 1 yk  N yk  2 y
.... k  N 
• The MSE   E ek  Ex   R  2p 

2 2
k
T T
• To determine the minimum MSE, We can use the gradient of

the MSE, i.e
89
By expanding the above equation and differentiating wrt each
signal in the weight vector, It can be shown that
 Setting = 0 , The optimal weight vector for MMSE is

1
ωR p
ˆ
Minimum mean square error (MMSE)
  R
T 1
ξ min  E   p
2
p
 E  p ω̂
2Τ

Minimizing the mean square error tends to reduce the bit error rate
Two general categories - linear and nonlinear equalization
If d(t) is not used in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer, the
equalization is linear
If d(t) is feed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer,
the equalization is nonlinear
Fig.3 Classification of equalizers 91

The most common equalizer structure is a Linear Transversal
Equalizer (LTE) which is made up of tapped delay elements
N2
d̂ k   n y k n
C *
n   N1

  T No
 F (e jT ) 2  N Minimum
2
 E e(n)  T
d
  2 

mean squared
T o
error
F(e jω t ) :frequency response of the channel
N o :noise spectral density 92
Nonlinear Equalization
•Used in applications where the channel distortion is too
severe for a linear equalizer to handle
• Three very effective non linear methods have been developed

which offer improvement over the linear equalizer techniques
Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimator (MLSE)
93
Decision Feedback Equalization -DFE
• Basic idea : once an information symbol has been detected and
decided upon, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be
estimated and subtracted out before detection of subsequent
symbols
Fig.8 Decision feedback equalizer (DFE)

N2 N3
d̂ k  C
n   N1
*
n y k  n   Fi d k i
i 1
 

T No

2
E e(n)  exp{ T
ln[ ]d}
min
2 
T F (e j T
)
2
 No 94
Predictive DFE is another form of DFE where feedback filter is driven by an input sequence formed by the difference of an output
the detector and the output of the FFF
•Predictive DFE performs as well as conventional DFE as the limit in the number of taps in FFF and the FBF approach infinity
•The FBF in predictive DFE can also be realized as a lattice structure
The RLS algorithm can be used to yield fast convergence
Fig.9 Predictive decision feedback equalizer

95
Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer
MLSE tests all possible data sequences (rather than decoding each received
symbol by itself ), and chooses the data sequence with the maximum
probability as the output
•Usually has a large computational requirement specially when the delay spread
of the channel is large
• MLSE
Fig: not only
The structure requireslikelihood
of a maximum knowledge of equalizer(MLSE)
sequence the channel characteristics
with an adaptive in orderfilter
matched to
compute the metrics for making decisions but also requires knowledge of the
statistical distribution of the noise corrupting the signal, Thus the probability
distribution of the noise determines the for of the metric for an optimum
demodulation of the received signal
96
Algorithm for Adaptive Equalization
•Performance measures of an algorithm for adaptive equalization
Rate of convergence (The no. of iterations required for the algorithm
)
Misadjustment (The difference b/n the MSE and optimal MSE
Computational complexity (The no. of operations required to make
one complete iteration of the algorithm)
Numerical properties (Noise representation and round off errors in
the computer )
Factors dominate the choice of an equalization structure and its algorithm
The cost of computing platform
The power budget
The radio propagation characteristics

•The choice of algorithm, and its corresponding rate of
convergence, depends on the channel data rate and
coherent time
•The speed of the mobile unit determines the channel fading

rate and the Doppler spread, which is related to the
coherent time of the channel directly
•The number of taps used in the equalizer design depends on

the maximum expected time delay spread of the channel
•The circuit complexity and processing time increases with the

number of taps and delay elements
Following are the three basic classic equalizer algorithms
1. Zero Forcing: The equalizer coefficients are chosen to force the
samples of the combined channel and equalizer impulse response to
a -function.
H ch ( f ) H eq ( f )  1 f  1/(2T )
The Zero forcing equalizer has the disadvantage that the inverse filter may
excessively amplify noise at frequencies where the folded channel spectrum
has high attenuation. Thus the ZF equalizer thus neglects the effect of noise
altogether, and is not often used for wireless links
2. Least Mean Square Algorithm: Update the coefficients according to the error.
i.e the algorithm seeks to minimize the mean square error
α is the step size that controls
dˆk (n)  w TN ( n) y N ( n) the convergence rate and
e (n)  x (n)  dˆ (n)

k k k
stability of the algorithm
w N ( n  1)  w N ( n)   ek* ( n) y N ( n) 99
3. Recursive Least Squares Algorithm
RLS is a faster converging rate algorithm that relies on error
measured in terms of time average of the actual received signal
instead of a statistical average
The least square error based on the time average is defined as
Where λ is the weighting factor
close to 1, but smaller than 1
The error e (i, n) is the error using the new tap gain at time n to test the old
data at time i
and
The RLS solution requires finding wN(n) such that J(n) is minimized
***It uses all the previous data to test the new tap gains
100
Channel Coding
Channel coding: It is the technique which improves
mobile communication link performance by adding
redundant data bits in the transmitted message. In this
technique, to the base band portion of the transmitter, a
channel coder maps a digital message sequence into
another specific containing greater number of bits than
originally contained in the message. The coded message
is then modulated for transmission in the wireless
channel.
• Channel Coding is used by the receiver to detect or
correct some or all of the errors introduced by the
channel in a particular sequence of message bits.
• The added coding bits increases the raw data used in the
link, and, hence, it increases the bandwidth requirement
for a fixed source data rate. This reduces BW efficiency
of the link in high SNR conditions, but provides
excellent BER performance at low SNR.
• There are three basic types of codes: Block codes,

Convolutional codes and Turbo codes

Channel codes are designed as
• Error detection codes
– Detects the presence of an error
– Error detection requires retransmission
• Detection is inadequate for wireless applications
– Error rate on wireless link can be high, results in a large
number of retransmissions
– Long propagation delay compared to transmission time
• Error correction codes, or forward correction codes (FEC)

– Designed to detect and correct errors with out retransmissio
– Widely used in wireless networks

Error Detection Process
• Transmitter
– For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits)
is calculated from data bits
– Check bits are appended to data bits
• Receiver
– Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits
– Calculates check bits from received data bits
– Compares calculated check bits against received check
bits
– Detected error occurs if mismatch
105
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Transmitter
– For a k-bit block, transmitter generates an (n-k)-bit frame
check sequence (FCS)
– Resulting frame of n bits is exactly divisible by predete-
rmined number
• Receiver
– Divides incoming frame by predetermined number
– If no remainder, assumes no error

Block Codes
 Block codes are Forward error correction (FEC) codes that enable a
limited number of errors to be detected and corrected with out
retransmission
 In Block codes, parity bits are added to blocks of message bits to

make codewords or codeblocks
 In block encoder k information bits are encoded in to n code bits &

is referred to as an (n, k) code.
 Code rate – ratio of data bits to total bits i.e. Rc= k/n 107
 The ability of a block code to correct errors is a function of the
code distance.
Distance of a code- the no. of elements in which two codewords Ci
and Cj differ
Where q is the total number of possible values of Ci and Cj

and N is the length of each code word
 The coding gain is the amount of additional SNR or Eb/N0 that
would be required to provide the same BER performance for an
uncoded message signal in the same channel condition
 If the code is capable of correcting at most t errors and PUC is the
BER of the channel without coding, then the probability that a bit
is in error using coding is:
1 n
 n i
PCB   i PUC (1  PUC )
  n i
n i t 1  i  108
FEC Decoder Outcomes
• No errors present
– Codeword produced by decoder matches original codeword
• Decoder detects and corrects bit errors
• Decoder detects but cannot correct bit errors; reports uncorrectable erro
• Decoder detects no bit errors, though errors are present 109

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Chapter Three

Mobile Radio Channel

 It is susceptible for noise, interference, and other impediments.

 The impediments change over time in unpredictable ways due to

 Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable, radio

 So modeling the radio channels has been historically the most

– distance between the two antennas,

– the path(s) taken by the signal, and

– the environment (buildings and other objects)

Tawetu A. September, 2023 4

• Fig. Radio wave Propagation mechanisms in an outdoor and indoor

Fig: Large and Small Scale Fading 7

•Large Scale Fading = Shadowing + Path Loss

Path loss in free space:

PL(dB) = 32.45+20log10fc(MHz)+ 20log10d(km)

Where: hb is base station height and

Tawetu A. September, 2023 13

Tawetu A. September, 2023 14

Tawetu A. September, 2023 15

• Χ represents the effect of shadowing.

Models for environmental attenuations.

Tawetu A. September, 2023 17

Longley –Rice Model

Tawetu A. September, 2023 18

 Shortcomings of Longley- Rice model are , Multipath

Path loss using Okumura’s Model

Tawetu A. September, 2023 22

Tawetu A. September, 2023 23

Tawetu A. September, 2023 24

Using the equation for Okumura’s path loss

Tawetu A. September, 2023 25

Tawetu A. September, 2023 26

Tawetu A. September, 2023 27

LSU= Path loss in suburban areas

Tawetu A. September, 2023 28

• The COST -231 extention of the Hata Model is restricted to the

Tawetu A. September, 2023 29

• The path loss to be a product of three factors

• Where P0 represents the free space path loss between isotropic

Tawetu A. September, 2023 31

• The propagation within a building is strongly influenced

1. Partition losses(Same floor)

 Soft partition (moveable)

2. Partition losses b/n floors

3. Log-distance path loss models

4. Ericson multiple break point model

5. Attenuation factor model (building type)

Tawetu A. September, 2023 34

Tawetu A. September, 2023 36

Tawetu A. September, 2023 38

Tawetu A. September, 2023 40

Tawetu A. September, 2023 41

Tawetu A. September, 2023 43

• Presence of reflectors, scattering and terminal motion results

a & b are in phase a & b are out of phase by 

Complete fading when

4.Transmission bandwidth of the signal

 If the mobile is moving away from the transmitter, the Doppler

• Velocity of the Mobile (or velocity of objects in the channel) and

Tawetu A. September, 2023 51

Fig. Inter Symbol Interference representation

Tawetu A. September, 2023 52

 Doppler spread and coherence time

Time domain view Freq domain view

Lec 6 7&8

Lec 6 7&8