Theme 1 ( 4 weeks)

GRAMMAR (page no 1-36)

From
Cliffs
TOEFL PREPARATION GUIDE
TEST OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
 1. Normal Sentence Pattern in English

S + V + C(obj) + Mod
Example :
S + V + C(obj) + Mod
1. George is cooking dinner tonight
Subject Verb Complemen Modifier
2. She opened herbook
3. Trees grow
4. It was raining at seven o’clock this morning
I , you, Am, is, Car, pizza, Last night, 5. Harry is washing dishes righ now
we, are, students yesterday,
john ate, go in room
Subject
Subject is the agent of sentence in the active voice

1. Subject may be a single noun

Example : coffee is delicious

2. Subject may be noun phrase.

Example : the book is on the table.

3. Pseudo-subject : in some sentence the is not a true subject, so use “it” and
“there”.
Example : it is a nice day.

NOTE : subject is the person or thing that does the active of sentence. Every sentences in English
mush have subject
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Verb
The verb follow the subject : it generally show the action of the
sentence.

1. Verb may be a single verb

Example : they hate spinach

2. Verb may be verb phrase : a verb phrase consists of one or more

auxiliaries and main verb.
Example : john is going to Miami

NOTE : the auxiliaries always precede the main verb. Every sentences in English mush have verb
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Complement

A complement completes the verb. It is similar to the subject because it is usually a

noun or noun phrase. A complement answer the question What ? Or Whom ?.

Example : Jill was driving a new car (what was jill driving)

Example : They called Marry yesterday (whom did they call)

NOTE : the complement cannot begin with a preposition. Every sentences in English does not require a
complement

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Modifier / Adjuct of …

A modifier tell the time, place, or manner of the action.

Very often it is a prepositional phrase and adverbial phrase. A modifier answer the
question When ?, Where ? Or How?

Example : Toni was swimming in the pool yesterday (modifier of place, modifier of
time)
Example : He was driving very fast (modifier of manner)

NOTE : Every sentences in English does not require a modifier

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 2. The Noun Phrase
The noun phrase is group of word that ends with a noun. It can be
determiners (the, a, this, etc), adjectives, adverbs,and nouns. Remember both
of subjects and complements are generally noun phrase.
1. Countable and non-countable nouns
- A count noun is one that can be counted.
example : book-one book, two books, a book, three books
person-one person, two people, three people, three person (s)
- A non-count noun is one that cannot be counted.
example : milk- you cannot say : one milk, two milk.
It is possible, to count some non-count noun if the
substance is place in a countable container.
glass of milk-one glass of milk, two glass of milk.
NOTE : Be sure that you know the plurals of irregular count nouns.
Example of non-count noun : , mathematics, money. Some non-count
nouns may be used as count nouns in order to indicate different types.
2. A and An
A or an only singular count nouns: they mean one. A is use before
words that begin with a consonant sound. An is use before word that
begin with a vowel sound.
Example: a book, a car, a person, an apple, an umbrella, an egg
Note: some word can be confusing, because the spelling does not
indicate the pronouncation.
3. The
The is use to indicate something that we already know about or something that is
common knowledge.
Example: The boy in the corner is my friend (the speaker and the listenner know
which boy)
The earth is round (there is only one earth)
With non-count nouns, one uses the article the if speaking in the specific terms, but uses
no article if speaking in general.
Example: Sugar is sweet (general-all sugar)
The sugar on the table is from Cuba (specific-the sugar that is on teh table)
NOTE : (1)Normaly, plural count nous, when they mean everything within a certain class,
are not preceded by the. (2) Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, school,
church, home, and college do not use any article unless to restrict the meaning.
4. Other
the use of the word other is often a course of confusion for foreign
students.
Formula
With Count Noun With Non-Count Noun
An + other + singular noun (one more) -
Another pencil = one pencil more
The other + singular noun (last of the set) -
The other pencil = the last pencil present
other + plural noun (more of the set) other + non-count nouns (more of the set)
other pencils = so more pencil other water = so more water
The other + plural noun (the rest of the set) The other + non-count nouns (all the rest)
The other pencils = all remaining pencils The other water = the remaining water
4. Other
NOTE: Another and other are non-specifc while the other is specific. If the
subject is understood, one can omit the noun and keep the determiner and other
so that other functions as a pronoun. If it is a plural count noun that is omitted,
other become others. The word other can NEVER be plural if it is followed by noun.
Example :
1. I don’t want this book. Please gime me another (another=any other book-not specific)
2. I don’t want this book. Please gime me the other (the other=any other book-not
specific)
NOTE: Another way of subtituting for the noun is to use other + one ore
ones.
Example :
3. I don’t want this book. Please give me another one.
4. I don’t want this book. Please give me the other one.
3. The Verb Phrase
• As mentioned in item 3, the verb phrase consists of the man verb and
any auxiliaries.
1. Tenses and aspect
a. Simple present -He walks to school every day.
b. Simple past -He walked to school yesterday.
c. Present progresive (continuous) -He is walking to school now.
d. Past progresive (continuous) -He was walking to school, when
he saw Jane.
e. Present perfect -He has walked to school several times.
f. Past perfect -He had walked to school before he hurt his foot.
NOTE: the common irregular verb is very important to know.
2. Simple present tense
This tense is usually not used to indicate present time, it is used
to indicate present time (now) with following stative verb.
Simple present tense is use to indicate a regular or habitual action.

Example:
John walks to school every day.(habitual action)
Mark usually walks to school.(habitual action)
We want to leave now.(stative verb)
The coffee tastes delicious.(stative verb)
3. Present progressive (continuous)
Use the following rule to form the present progressive.

{ }
𝑎𝑚
subject + 𝑖𝑠 +[ 𝑣𝑒𝑟 + 𝑖𝑛𝑔]
𝑎𝑟𝑒

The present progressive is use to indicate present time (now) with all
but the stative verb listed previously. It is also use to indicate future
time.
Example: John is eating diner now.(present time)
Henry is walking to school tomorrow.(future time)
4. Simple past tense
the simple past is use for a completed action that happened at
one special time in the past. The italicized word are important because
the show that siple is not the same as past progresive or present
perfect.
Example: John went to Spain last year.
Bob bought a new bicycle yesterday.
Maria did her homework last night.
Mark washed the dishes after dinner.
5. Past progressive (continuous)
Use folowing rule to form the past progressive.

{ }
subject + 𝑤𝑎𝑠 +[ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏+𝑖𝑛𝑔 ]
𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒

The past progressive is used to indicate:

a. An action which was occurring in the past and was intrerruped by another
action.

when+subject ( 1 ) +𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒+𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( 2 ) +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒…

OR
subject ( 1 ) +𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒+when+𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( 2 )+𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 …
Example:
When Mark came home, Martha was waching television.
OR
Martha was waching television, when Mark came home
5. Past progressive (continuous)
The past progressive is used to indicate: (a) Two action occurring in the
same time in the past. In this case, the following rules usually apply.

while+subject ( 1 ) +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒+𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( 2 ) +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒…

OR
subject ( 1 ) +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒+while+𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( 2 ) +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒…
Example:
While John was reading a book, Martha was watching television
OR
Martha was watching television, While John was reading a book.
(b) An action which was occurring at some specific time in the past.
Example: Martha was watching television at seven o’clock last night.
6. Present perfect
use the following rule ro form the preset perfect
{ }
subject + h𝑎𝑠 +[ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒]
h𝑎𝑣𝑒

The present perfect is used to indicated:

a. An action that happened at an indefinite time in the past.
John has traveled around the world (we don’t know when)
b. An action that happened more that one in the past
George has seen this movie three times
c. An action that began in the past and is still occuring on the present.
John has lived in the same house for twenty years. (he still live there)
OR
John live in th same house since 1962. (he still live there)
NOTE: use for + duration of time (for five hour, for two years), use since + beginning
time (since 1972, since January)
7. Present perfect
Already usually appears between the auxiliary and the main verb (it can be
appear at the beginning or end of sentence). Yet appears at the end of sentence.
{ }
subject + h𝑎𝑠 + 𝑎𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 +[ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 ]
h𝑎𝑣𝑒

subject + { h𝑎𝑠 }+𝑛𝑜𝑡 + [ 𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 ] … .+ 𝑦𝑒𝑡

h𝑎𝑣𝑒

Use yet is sometimes possible. In this case the verb is positive and the
adverb yet does not appear at the end of the sentece.
subject + { h𝑎𝑠
h𝑎𝑣𝑒 }+ 𝑦𝑒𝑡 +[ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ]

Example: We have already written our resports

Maria hasn’t called her parents yet
John has yet to learn the material
NOTE: alrady affirmative sentences, yet  negative sentences and questions.
8. Present perfect progressive (continuous):
Use the following rule to form this aspect.
{h𝑎𝑣𝑒 }
subject + h𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛+ [ 𝑣𝑒𝑟 +𝑖𝑛𝑔 ] … .

Example: John has been living in the same house for twenty years.
8. Past perfect
us the following rule to form the past perfect.
subject+h𝑎𝑑+ [ 𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 ] ….
a. An action that happenned before another action in the past: there
usually are two actions in the sentence.
Example: John told us yesterday that he had visited England in the 1970.
b. A state which continued for a time in the past, but stopped before now.
Example: Abdul had lived in the New York for ten years before he moved to
California.
8. Past perfect
The past perfect is usually used with the adverbs before, after, or
when. Study the following formulas.
subject+𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡+𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡+𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
John had gone to the store before he went home.
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 +𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒+subject +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
Before John went home, he had gone to the store
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡+𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒+after+subject +𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
John went home, after he had gone to the store.
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 +𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡+𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡+subject +𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
After John had gone to the store, he went home.
9. Past perfect progressive (continuous)
Study the following rule.
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 +h𝑎𝑑 +been+ [ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏+𝑖𝑛𝑔 ] …
Example: Abdul had been living in the New York for ten years before he
moved to California.
4. Subject-Verb Agreement
Remember that the subject and verb in a sentence must agree in
person and number.
The elevator works very well. The elevators work very well.
singular singular plural plural
1.Subject –Verb Agreement
Very often, if the subject and verb are separated, they will be
separated by a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase has no
effect on the verb.
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡+ [ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃h𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑒 ] +𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
Example: The study of languages is very interesting.
singular subject singular verb
Several theories on this subject have been proposed.
plural subject plural verb

Note: If the conjunction and is used instead of one of these phrases the
verb would then be plural.
Example: The actress and her manager are going to a party tonight.
plural subject plural verb
2. Words that always take singular verbs and pronouns
Some words are often confused by students as being plural. The
following words must be followed by singular verbs and pronouns in
formal written English.
Any + singular No + singular Some + Every + Each + singular
noun noun singular noun singular noun noun
Anybody Nobody Somebody Everybody Either*
Anyone No one Someone Everyone Neither*
anything Nothing Something Everything

*Either and neither are singular , if they are not used with or and nor
• Example: Something was under the house
Nobody works harder than John does.
3. None/No
None can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the
noun which follows it.
none + o f the + non − count noun + singular verb
Example: None of the counterfeit money has been found.
none + o f the + plural count noun + plural
Example: None of the students have finished the exam yet.
No can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the
o +{
noun whichnfollows it.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑛
}+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛

Example:no + plural
No example is relevant noun
to this case+ plural verb
Example:No examples are relevant to this case.
4. Either / Neither
When either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be
singular or plural, depending on whether the noun following or and nor is
singular or plural. If or or nor appears alone, the same rule applies. Study
the following formulas.
{ } { }
𝑛 𝑒𝑖𝑡h𝑒𝑟 +n oun+ 𝑛𝑜𝑟 +𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛+𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑒𝑖𝑡h𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟
Example: Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.
plural noun plural verb
Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.
plural noun plural verb

{ } { }
𝑛 𝑒𝑖𝑡h𝑒𝑟 +n oun+ 𝑛𝑜𝑟 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑒𝑖𝑡h𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟
Example: Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today.
singular noun singular verb
Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.
singular subject singular verb
5. Gerunds as subjects
If a sentence begins with [verb + ing] (gerund), the verb must
also be singular.
Example: Knowing her has made him what he is.
Dieting is very popular today.
Not studying has caused him many problems.
Being cordial is one of his greatest assets.
Writing many letters makes her happy.
6. Collective nouns
Also many words indicating a number of people or animals are singular.
The following nouns are usually singular. In some cases they are plural if the
sentence indicates that the individual members are acting separately.
Example: The crowd was wild with excitement.
Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation.
The following nouns are used to indicate groups of certain animals. It is
not necessary to learn the nouns; however, they mean the same as group and
thus are considered singular.
Example: The flock of birds is circling overhead.
The herd of cattle is breaking away.
A school of fish is being attacked by sharks.
Collective nouns indicating time, money, and measurements used as a
whole are singular.
Example: Two miles is too much to run in one day.
Twenty dollars is all I can afford to pay for that recorder.
7. A number of / the number of
..
Example:
A number of students are going to the class picnic, (a number of=many)
the number o f + plural noun + singular verb...
Example:
The number of days in a week is seven.
8. Noun that are always plural
The following nouns are always considered plural. They cannot
be singular. In order to speak of them as singular, one must say “apair
of__________ ”
scissors shorts pants jeans tongs
trousers eyeglasses pliers tweezers

Example: The pants are in the drawer.

A pair of pants is in the drawer.
The pliers were on the table.
9. There is / there are
Remember that with sentences beginning with the existential
there, the subject is actually after the verb.

{ }
𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 … .(𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 −𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡)
𝑡𝑠h𝑒𝑟𝑒 h𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛

{ }
𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 +𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 …
𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑒 h𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛
Example: There is a storm approaching.
singular singular
There have been a number of telephone calls today.
plural plural
5. Prounoun
There are five forms of pronouns in English: subject pronouns,
complement pronouns (object pronouns), possessive pronouns,
possessive adjectives, and reflexive pronouns.
12. Would like
This expression is often used in invitations; it can also mean want. Note: It is
not correct to say: “Do you like . . . ?” to invite somebody to do something.
subject + would like + [to + verb]. . .

Example: Would you like to study with me?

I would like to visit Japan.
13. Could/ may/ might
Although could is used in conditionals, it can also be used to mean possibility.
In this case, could, may, or might mean the same. The speaker is not sure of the
statement made when using these modals.
Note: Maybe is a combination of may and be, but it is one word and is not an
auxiliary. It means the same as perhaps.
Example: It might be warmer tomorrow.
I may not be able to go with you tonight.
I don’t know where Jaime is. He could be at home.