IGCSE BIOLOGY

SECTION 2 LESSON 8
 Content

Section 2
a) Levels of organisation
b) Cell structure
Structures c) Biological molecules
and d) Movement of substances
functions into and out of cells
in living e) Nutrition
organisms f) Respiration
g) Gas exchange
h) Transport
i) Excretion
j) Coordination and response
 Content
j) Coordination and response
2.77 understand that organisms are able to respond to changes in their

Lesson 8 environment
2.78 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
environment and that body water content and body temperature are both
examples of homeostasis
2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and

j) Coordination an effector
Flowering plants

and response 2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuli

2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems
2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems
Humans
2.83 describe how responses can be controlled by nervous or by hormonal
communication and understand the differences between the two systems
2.84 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
and is linked to sense organs by nerves
2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical
impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid
responses
2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the
withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in
responding to changes in light intensity
2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to
sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
2.90 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH,
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen.
 Content
j) Coordination and response
2.77 understand that organisms are able to respond to changes in their

Lesson 8 environment
2.78 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
environment and that body water content and body temperature are both
examples of homeostasis
2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and

j) Coordination an effector
Flowering plants

and response 2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuli

2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems
2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems
Humans
2.83 describe how responses can be controlled by nervous or by hormonal
communication and understand the differences between the two systems
2.84 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
and is linked to sense organs by nerves
2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical
impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid
responses
2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the
withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in
responding to changes in light intensity
2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to
sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
2.90 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH,
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen.
 Content
j) Coordination and response
2.77 understand that organisms are able to respond to changes in their

Lesson 8 environment
2.78 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
environment and that body water content and body temperature are both
examples of homeostasis
2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and

j) Coordination an effector
Flowering plants

and response 2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuli

2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems
2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems
Humans
2.83 describe how responses can be controlled by nervous or by hormonal
communication and understand the differences between the two systems
2.84 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
and is linked to sense organs by nerves
2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical
impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid
responses
2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the
withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in
responding to changes in light intensity
2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to
sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
2.90 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH,
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen.
The Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System
Brain
The Central Nervous System
Brain

Spinal cord
The Central Nervous System
Brain

Spinal cord
Spinal nerves
The Central Nervous System
Brain

Spinal cord
Spinal nerves

Cell
body Motor neurone

Direction of impulse
The Central Nervous System
Brain

Spinal cord
Spinal nerves

Cell Sensory neurone

body

Direction of impulse
The Central Nervous System
Brain

Spinal cord
Spinal nerves

Cell Relay neurone

body
Nerve cell (neurone)

Neurones are specially

adapted cells that can carry
impulses (electrical signals)
Nerve cell (neurone)

Neurones are specially

adapted cells that can carry
impulses (electrical signals)

They are very long

(elongated) and connect
parts of the body
Nerve cell (neurone)

Neurones are specially

adapted cells that can carry
impulses (electrical signals)

They are very long

(elongated) and connect
parts of the body

They have branched

endings to allow a
single neurone to
link to may muscle
fibres
 Nerve cell (neurone)

Neurones are specially

adapted cells that can carry
impulses (electrical signals)

They are very long

(elongated) and connect
parts of the body

They have branched

The cell body has many endings to allow a
connections, so enabling single neurone to
communication with other link to may muscle
neurones fibres
Nerve cell (neurone)

Dendrites

Cell body
Myelin (fatty) sheath)

Axon endings
 The Reflex Action
A reflex action is a rapid, unlearned response to
a stimulus. It has a high survival value.

When specific receptors are stimulated they

cause a very fast, automatic response to the
presence of danger. Co-ordination between the
sensory and motor neurones takes place without
the need for conscious thought.

Eg. removing the hand from a hot object.

The Reflex Action
 The Reflex Action

Stimulus, eg.
a hot object
 The Reflex Action

Receptor
eg. in the
skin
 The Reflex Action

Sensory
neurone
The Reflex Action
Relay neurone
The Reflex Action

Motor neurone
The Reflex Action

Effector, eg.
muscle
 The Reflex Action

1. The receptor
is stimulated by
the hot object
 The Reflex Action

2. This
causes an 2
impulse to
pass along.

1. The receptor
is stimulated by
the hot object
 The Reflex Action
3. The spinal cord (or brain) co-ordinates
response without conscious thought.

2. This 3
causes an 2
impulse to
pass along.

1. The receptor
is stimulated by
the hot object
 The Reflex Action
3. The spinal cord (or brain) co-ordinates
response without conscious thought.

2. This 3 4. An
causes an impulse is
2
transmitted
impulse to 4 along a
pass along. motor
neurone

1. The receptor
is stimulated by
the hot object
 The Reflex Action
3. The spinal cord (or brain) co-ordinates
response without conscious thought.

2. This 3 4. An
causes an impulse is
2
transmitted
impulse to 4 along a
pass along. motor
neurone

1 5

1. The receptor 5. The muscle

contracts in
is stimulated by response to the
the hot object stimulus
 The Conscious Action

1. Receptors in your
foot detect a stone
in your shoe

1
 The Conscious Action

2. An impulse is
sent along a sensory
neurone

1. Receptors in your 2
foot detect a stone
in your shoe
 The Conscious Action

3. In the spinal cord

another sensory
neurone takes the
impulse to the brain

2. An impulse is 3
sent along a sensory
neurone

1. Receptors in your
foot detect a stone
in your shoe
 The Conscious Action
4. The brain
co-oordinates the
input and output
3. In the spinal cord
another sensory 4
neurone takes the
impulse to the brain

2. An impulse is
sent along a sensory
neurone

1. Receptors in your
foot detect a stone
in your shoe
 The Conscious Action
4. The brain
co-oordinates the
input and output
3. In the spinal cord 5. An impulse is
another sensory sent along a motor
neurone takes the neurone in the CNS
impulse to the brain

5
2. An impulse is
sent along a sensory
neurone

1. Receptors in your
foot detect a stone
in your shoe
 The Conscious Action
4. The brain
co-oordinates the
input and output
3. In the spinal cord 5. An impulse is
another sensory sent along a motor
neurone takes the neurone in the CNS
impulse to the brain

2. An impulse is 6. The impulse leaves

sent along a sensory the CNS via another
neurone motor neurone

1. Receptors in your 6
foot detect a stone
in your shoe
 The Conscious Action
4. The brain
co-oordinates the
input and output
3. In the spinal cord 5. An impulse is
another sensory sent along a motor
neurone takes the neurone in the CNS
impulse to the brain

2. An impulse is 6. The impulse leaves

sent along a sensory the CNS via another
neurone motor neurone

1. Receptors in your 7. Muscles (the

foot detect a stone effectors) lift the
in your shoe foot out of the shoe

7
 Responding to our environment
LIGHT TASTE
receptors in receptors in
the EYES the TONGUE

SOUND SMELL
receptors in receptors in
the EARS the NOSE

CHANGE OF TOUCH,
POSITION PRESSURE and
TEMPERATURE
receptors in receptors in
the EARS the SKIN
(balance)
 Responding to our environment
LIGHT TASTE
receptors in receptors in
the EYES the TONGUE

SOUND SMELL
receptors in receptors in
the EARS the NOSE

CHANGE OF TOUCH,
POSITION PRESSURE and
TEMPERATURE
receptors in receptors in
the EARS the SKIN
(balance)
The Eye
The Eye
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea

2. Iris

3. Lens

4. Ciliary
muscle
5. Retina

6. Optic
nerve
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea Front of the eye, helps to focus the

light
2. Iris

3. Lens

4. Ciliary
muscle
5. Retina

6. Optic
nerve
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea Front of the eye, helps to focus the

light
2. Iris Controls the amount of light reaching
the back of the eye.
3. Lens

4. Ciliary
muscle
5. Retina

6. Optic
nerve
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea Front of the eye, helps to focus the

light
2. Iris Controls the amount of light reaching
the back of the eye.
3. Lens Focuses the light rays on the retina

4. Ciliary
muscle
5. Retina

6. Optic
nerve
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea Front of the eye, helps to focus the

light
2. Iris Controls the amount of light reaching
the back of the eye.
3. Lens Focuses the light rays on the retina

4. Ciliary Alters the shape of the lens so it can

muscle focus on near and distant objects.
5. Retina

6. Optic
nerve
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea Front of the eye, helps to focus the

light
2. Iris Controls the amount of light reaching
the back of the eye.
3. Lens Focuses the light rays on the retina

4. Ciliary Alters the shape of the lens so it can

muscle focus on near and distant objects.
5. Retina Contains the light sensitive receptor
cells
6. Optic
nerve
 The Eye
Structure Function

1. Cornea Front of the eye, helps to focus the

light
2. Iris Controls the amount of light reaching
the back of the eye.
3. Lens Focuses the light rays on the retina

4. Ciliary Alters the shape of the lens so it can

muscle focus on near and distant objects.
5. Retina Contains the light sensitive receptor
cells
6. Optic Sends impulses from the retina to the
nerve brain.
The Eye
 Focusing on near and distant
objects

DISTANT OBJECT
• suspensory ligaments
pull tight
• ciliary muscles relax
• lens is pulled thinner
and so light isn’t bent as
much.
 Focusing on near and distant
objects

NEAR OBJECT
• suspensory ligaments
relax and go slack
• ciliary muscles
contract
• lens becomes fatter
and so light is bent
much more.
 Responding to changes in light
intensity

The IRIS is the

coloured part, and
made of muscle.

The PUPIL is made

bigger or smaller
by the iris
 Responding to changes in light
intensity

In brighter light the pupil is

made smaller by the iris, so
limiting the amount of light
hitting the retina

In dim light the pupil is made

larger by the iris, so allowing
as much light as possible to
hit the retina
The skin and temperature control

• In cold conditions, the

erector muscles contract,
pulling the hairs away
from the skin (the ‘wet
suit’ effect).
• The sweat glands stop
producing sweat.
• Capillaries near the skin
surface are closed,
preventing excessive heat
loss from the skin ( =
vasoconstriction)
The skin and temperature control

• In hotter conditions, the

erector muscles relax, the
hairs lie closer to the skin
surface.
• The sweat glands produce
sweat.
• Capillaries near the skin
surface are opened,
allowing excessive heat to
be lost from the skin ( =
vasodilation)
 Content
j) Coordination and response
2.77 understand that organisms are able to respond to changes in their

Lesson 8 environment
2.78 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
environment and that body water content and body temperature are both
examples of homeostasis
2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and

j) Coordination an effector
Flowering plants

and response 2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuli

2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems
2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems
Humans
2.83 describe how responses can be controlled by nervous or by hormonal
communication and understand the differences between the two systems
2.84 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
and is linked to sense organs by nerves
2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical
impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid
responses
2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the
withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor
2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in
responding to changes in light intensity
2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to
sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
2.90 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH,
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen.
 End of Section 2 Lesson 8

In this lesson we have covered:

The Central Nervous System

Nerve cells (neurones)
The Reflex Action
The Conscious Action
Structure and Function of the Eye
The Skin and Temperature Control