Fundamentals of the

Nervous System and

Nervous Tissue
Nervous System

 The master controlling and communicating system

of the body
 Functions
 Sensory input – monitoring stimuli occurring inside
and outside the body
 Integration – interpretation of sensory input

 Motor output – response to stimuli by activating

effector organs
Nervous System

Figure 11.1
Organization of the Nervous System

 Central nervous system (CNS)

 Brain and spinal cord

 Integration and command center

 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 Paired spinal and cranial nerves

 Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and

brain
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Two
Functional Divisions

 Sensory (afferent) division

 Sensory afferent fibers – carry impulses from skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain
 Visceral afferent fibers – transmit impulses from
visceral organs to the brain

 Motor (efferent) division

 Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs
Motor Division: Two Main Parts

 Somatic nervous system

 Conscious control of skeletal muscles

 Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

 Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands
 Divisions – sympathetic and parasympathetic
Histology of Nerve Tissue

 The two principal cell types of the nervous system

are:
 Neurons – excitable cells that transmit electrical
signals
 Supporting cells – cells that surround and wrap
neurons
Supporting Cells: Neuroglia

 The supporting cells (neuroglia or glial cells):

 Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons

 Segregate and insulate neurons

 Guide young neurons to the proper connections

 Promote health and growth

Astrocytes

 Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial

cells
 They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings,
and cover capillaries
 Functionally, they:
 Support and brace neurons
 Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies
 Guide migration of young neurons
 Control the chemical environment
Astrocytes

Figure 11.3a
Microglia and Ependymal Cells

 Microglia – small, ovoid cells with spiny processes

 Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons

 Ependymal cells – range in shape from squamous to

columnar
 They line the central cavities of the brain and spinal
column
Microglia and Ependymal Cells

Figure 11.3b, c
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and Satellite
Cells

 Oligodendrocytes – branched cells that wrap CNS

nerve fibers
 Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) – surround fibers
of the PNS
 Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies with
ganglia
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and Satellite
Cells

Figure 11.3d, e
Neurons (Nerve Cells)

 Structural units of the nervous system

 Composed of a body, axon, and dendrites

 Long-lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic

rate

 Their plasma membrane functions in:

 Electrical signaling

 Cell-to-cell signaling during development

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Figure 11.4b
Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)

 Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus

 Is the major biosynthetic center

 Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal

processes
 Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature)

 Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)

 Contains an axon hillock – cone-shaped area from

which axons arise
Processes

 Armlike extensions from the soma

 Called tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS

 There are two types: axons and dendrites

Dendrites of Motor Neurons

 Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes

 They are the receptive, or input, regions of the

neuron
 Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials
(not action potentials)
Axons: Structure

 Slender processes of uniform diameter arising from

the hillock
 Long axons are called nerve fibers

 Usually there is only one unbranched axon per

neuron
 Rare branches, if present, are called axon collaterals

 Axonal terminal – branched terminus of an axon

Axons: Function

 Generate and transmit action potentials

 Secrete neurotransmitters from the axonal terminals

 Movement along axons occurs in two ways

 Anterograde — toward axonal terminal

 Retrograde — away from axonal terminal

Myelin Sheath

 Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath

around most long axons
 It functions to:
 Protect the axon

 Electrically insulate fibers from one another

 Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission

Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation

 Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS

 A Schwann cell:
 Envelopes an axon in a trough

 Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane

 Has concentric layers of membrane that make up

the myelin sheath

 Neurilemma – remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of a

Schwann cell
Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation

Figure 11.5a-c
Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)

 Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent

Schwann cells
 They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge
Unmyelinated Axons

 A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but coiling

does not take place
 Schwann cells partially enclose 15 or more axons
Axons of the CNS

 Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present

 Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes

 Nodes of Ranvier are widely spaced

 There is no neurilemma
Conduction Velocities of Axons

 Conduction velocities vary widely among neurons

 Rate of impulse propagation is determined by:

 Axon diameter – the larger the diameter, the faster
the impulse
 Presence of a myelin sheath – myelination
dramatically increases impulse speed
CONDUCTION VELOCITIES

 The speed with which an action potential travels

depends on 2 factors:
 Diameter of axon – the larger the faster
 Degree of myelination
 Myelinated – faster
 Saltatory conduction
Saltatory Conduction

 Current passes through a myelinated axon only at

the nodes of Ranvier
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated at these
nodes
 Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and
jump from one node to the next
 Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated
axons
Saltatory Conduction

Figure 11.16
Regions of the Brain and Spinal Cord

 White matter – dense collections of myelinated

fibers
 Gray matter – mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers
Neuron Classification

 Structural:
 Multipolar — three or more processes

 Bipolar — two processes (axon and dendrite)

 Unipolar — single, short process

Neuron Classification

 Functional:
 Sensory (afferent) — transmit impulses toward the
CNS
 Motor (efferent) — carry impulses away from the
CNS
 Interneurons (association neurons) — shuttle
signals through CNS pathways
Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.1
Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.2
Comparison of Structural Classes of Neurons

Table 11.1.3
Neurophysiology

 Neurons are highly irritable

 Action potentials, or nerve impulses, are:

 Electrical impulses carried along the length of
axons
 Always the same regardless of stimulus

 The underlying functional feature of the nervous

system
Nerve Fiber Classification

 Nerve fibers are classified according to:

 Diameter

 Degree of myelination

 Speed of conduction
Synapses

 A junction that mediates information transfer from

one neuron:
 To another neuron

 To an effector cell

 Presynaptic neuron – conducts impulses toward the

synapse
 Postsynaptic neuron – transmits impulses away from
the synapse
Synapses

Figure 11.17
Types of Synapses

 Axodendritic – synapses between the axon of one

neuron and the dendrite of another
 Axosomatic – synapses between the axon of one
neuron and the soma of another
 Other types of synapses include:
 Axoaxonic (axon to axon)

 Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)

 Dendrosomatic (dendrites to soma)

Electrical Synapses
 Electrical synapses:
 Are less common than chemical synapses
 Correspond to gap junctions found in other cell
types
 Are important in the CNS in:
 Arousal from sleep
 Mental attention
 Emotions and memory
 Ion and water homeostasis
Chemical Synapses

 Specialized for the release and reception of

neurotransmitters
 Typically composed of two parts:
 Axonal terminal of the presynaptic neuron, which
contains synaptic vesicles
 Receptor region on the dendrite(s) or soma of the
postsynaptic neuron
Synaptic Cleft

 Fluid-filled space separating the presynaptic and

postsynaptic neurons
 Prevents nerve impulses from directly passing from
one neuron to the next
 Transmission across the synaptic cleft:
 Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical
one)
 Ensures unidirectional communication between
neurons
Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer

 Nerve impulses reach the axonal terminal of the

presynaptic neuron and open Ca2+ channels
 Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
via exocytosis in response to synaptotagmin
 Neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds
to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
 Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes,
causing an excitatory or inhibitory effect
Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer

Figure 11.19
Termination of Neurotransmitter Effects

 Neurotransmitter bound to a postsynaptic neuron:

 Produces a continuous postsynaptic effect
 Blocks reception of additional “messages”
 Must be removed from its receptor
 Removal of neurotransmitters occurs when they:
 Are degraded by enzymes
 Are reabsorbed by astrocytes or the presynaptic terminals
 Diffuse from the synaptic cleft
Synaptic Delay

 Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across the

synapse, and bind to receptors
 Synaptic delay – time needed to do this (0.3-5.0 ms)

 Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural

transmission
Postsynaptic Potentials

 Neurotransmitter receptors mediate changes in

membrane potential according to:
 The amount of neurotransmitter released

 The amount of time the neurotransmitter is bound

to receptors

 The two types of postsynaptic potentials are:

 EPSP – excitatory postsynaptic potentials

 IPSP – inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

 EPSPs are graded potentials that can initiate an

action potential in an axon
 Use only chemically gated channels
 Na+ and K+ flow in opposite directions at the same
time
 Postsynaptic membranes do not generate action
potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

Figure 11.20a
Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs

 Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor at inhibitory

synapses:
 Causes the membrane to become more permeable
to potassium and chloride ions
 Leaves the charge on the inner surface negative

 Reduces the postsynaptic neuron’s ability to

produce an action potential
Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs

Figure 11.20b
Summation

 A single EPSP cannot induce an action potential

 EPSPs must summate temporally or spatially to

induce an action potential
 Temporal summation – presynaptic neurons transmit
impulses in rapid-fire order
Summation

 Spatial summation – postsynaptic neuron is

stimulated by a large number of terminals at the
same time
 IPSPs can also summate with EPSPs, canceling each
other out
Summation

Figure 11.21
Neurotransmitters

 Chemicals used for neuronal communication with

the body and the brain
 50 different neurotransmitters have been identified

 Classified chemically and functionally

Chemical Neurotransmitters

 Acetylcholine (ACh)

 Biogenic amines

 Amino acids

 Peptides

 Novel messengers: ATP and dissolved gases NO and

CO
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine
 First neurotransmitter identified, and best
understood
 Released at the neuromuscular junction
 Synthesized and enclosed in synaptic vesicles
 Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
(AChE)
 Released by:
 All neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle
 Some neurons in the autonomic nervous system
Neurotransmitters: Biogenic Amines

 Include:
 Catecholamines – dopamine, norepinephrine (NE),
and epinephrine
 Indolamines – serotonin and histamine

 Broadly distributed in the brain

 Play roles in emotional behaviors and our biological

clock
Synthesis of Catecholamines

 Enzymes present in the

cell determine length of
biosynthetic pathway
 Norepinephrine and
dopamine are
synthesized in axonal
terminals
 Epinephrine is released
by the adrenal medulla
Figure 11.22
Neurotransmitters: Amino Acids

 Include:
 GABA – Gamma ()-aminobutyric acid

 Glycine

 Aspartate

 Glutamate

 Found only in the CNS

Neurotransmitters: Peptides

 Include:
 Substance P – mediator of pain signals

 Beta endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins

 Act as natural opiates, reducing our perception of

pain
 Bind to the same receptors as opiates and morphine

 Gut-brain peptides – somatostatin, and

cholecystokinin
Neurotransmitters: Novel Messengers

 ATP
 Is found in both the CNS and PNS

 Produces excitatory or inhibitory responses

depending on receptor type
 Induces Ca2+ wave propagation in astrocytes

 Provokes pain sensation

Neurotransmitters: Novel Messengers

 Nitric oxide (NO)

 Activates the intracellular receptor guanylyl cyclase

 Is involved in learning and memory

 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a main regulator of cGMP

in the brain
Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters

 Two classifications: excitatory and inhibitory

 Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarizations
(e.g., glutamate)
 Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
hyperpolarizations (e.g., GABA and glycine)
Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters

 Some neurotransmitters have both excitatory and

inhibitory effects
 Determined by the receptor type of the postsynaptic
neuron
 Example: acetylcholine

 Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions with

skeletal muscle
 Inhibitory in cardiac muscle
Neurotransmitter Receptor Mechanisms
 Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion channels
 Promote rapid responses
 Examples: ACh and amino acids
 Indirect: neurotransmitters that act through second
messengers
 Promote long-lasting effects
 Examples: biogenic amines, peptides, and dissolved
gases
Channel-Linked Receptors

 Composed of integral membrane protein

 Mediate direct neurotransmitter action

 Action is immediate, brief, simple, and highly

localized
 Ligand binds the receptor, and ions enter the cells

 Excitatory receptors depolarize membranes

 Inhibitory receptors hyperpolarize membranes

Channel-Linked Receptors

Figure 11.23a
G Protein-Linked Receptors

 Responses are indirect, slow, complex, prolonged,

and often diffuse
 These receptors are transmembrane protein
complexes
 Examples: muscarinic ACh receptors, neuropeptides,
and those that bind biogenic amines
G Protein-Linked Receptors: Mechanism

 Neurotransmitter binds to G protein-linked receptor

 G protein is activated and GTP is hydrolyzed to

GDP
 The activated G protein complex activates adenylate
cyclase
 Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the formation of cAMP
from ATP
 cAMP, a second messenger, brings about various
cellular responses
G Protein-Linked Receptors: Mechanism

Figure 11.23b
G Protein-Linked Receptors: Effects

 G protein-linked receptors activate intracellular

second messengers including Ca2+, cGMP,
diacylglycerol, as well as cAMP
 Second messengers:
 Open or close ion channels

 Activate kinase enzymes

 Phosphorylate channel proteins

 Activate genes and induce protein synthesis

Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

 Functional groups of neurons that:

 Integrate incoming information

 Forward the processed information to its

appropriate destination
Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

 Simple neuronal pool

 Input fiber – presynaptic fiber

 Discharge zone – neurons most closely associated

with the incoming fiber
 Facilitated zone – neurons farther away from
incoming fiber
Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

Figure 11.24
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

 Divergent – one incoming fiber stimulates ever

increasing number of fibers, often amplifying
circuits

Figure 11.25a, b
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

 Convergent –
opposite of
divergent
circuits, resulting
in either strong
stimulation or
inhibition

Figure 11.25c, d
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

 Reverberating – chain of neurons containing

collateral synapses with previous neurons in the
chain

Figure 11.25e
Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

 Parallel after-discharge – incoming neurons

stimulate several neurons in parallel arrays

Figure 11.25f
Patterns of Neural Processing

 Serial Processing
 Input travels along one pathway to a specific
destination
 Works in an all-or-none manner

 Example: spinal reflexes

Patterns of Neural Processing

 Parallel Processing
 Input travels along several pathways

 Pathways are integrated in different CNS systems

 One stimulus promotes numerous responses

 Example: a smell may remind one of the odor and

associated experiences
Development of Neurons

 The nervous system originates from the neural tube

and neural crest
 The neural tube becomes the CNS

 There is a three-phase process of differentiation:

 Proliferation of cells needed for development

 Migration – cells become amitotic and move

externally
 Differentiation into neuroblasts
Axonal Growth

 Guided by:
 Scaffold laid down by older neurons

 Orienting glial fibers

 Release of nerve growth factor by astrocytes

 Neurotropins released by other neurons

 Repulsion guiding molecules

 Attractants released by target cells

N-CAMs

 N-CAM – nerve cell adhesion molecule

 Important in establishing neural pathways

 Without N-CAM, neural function is impaired

 Found in the membrane of the growth cone

Sensory Receptors

 Structures specialized to respond to stimuli

 Activation of sensory receptors results in

depolarizations that trigger impulses to the CNS
 The realization of these stimuli, sensation and
perception, occur in the brain
Receptor Classification by Stimulus Type

 Mechanoreceptors – respond to touch, pressure,

vibration, stretch, and itch
 Thermoreceptors – sensitive to changes in
temperature
 Photoreceptors – respond to light energy (e.g.,
retina)
 Chemoreceptors – respond to chemicals (e.g., smell,
taste, changes in blood chemistry)
 Nociceptors – sensitive to pain-causing stimuli
Receptor Class by Location: Exteroceptors

 Respond to stimuli arising outside the body

 Found near the body surface

 Sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

 Include the special sense organs

Receptor Class by Location: Interoceptors

 Respond to stimuli arising within the body

 Found in internal viscera and blood vessels

 Sensitive to chemical changes, stretch, and

temperature changes
Receptor Class by Location: Proprioceptors

 Respond to degree of stretch of the organs they

occupy
 Found in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints,
ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of bones
and muscles
 Constantly “advise” the brain of one’s movements
Receptor Classification by Structural
Complexity

 Receptors are structurally classified as either simple

or complex
 Most receptors are simple and include encapsulated
and unencapsulated varieties
 Complex receptors are special sense organs
Simple Receptors: Unencapsulated

 Free dendritic nerve endings

 Respond chiefly to temperature and pain

 Merkel (tactile) discs

 Hair follicle receptors

Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

 Meissner’s corpuscles (tactile corpuscles)

 Pacinian corpuscles (lamellated corpuscles)

 Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, and Ruffini’s

corpuscles
 Joint kinesthetic receptors
Simple Receptors: Unencapsulated

Table 13.1.1
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.2
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.3
Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.4
From Sensation to Perception

 Survival depends upon sensation and perception

 Sensation is the awareness of changes in the internal

and external environment
 Perception is the conscious interpretation of those
stimuli
Organization of the Somatosensory System

 Input comes from exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and

interoceptors
 The three main levels of neural integration in the
somatosensory system are:
 Receptor level – the sensor receptors

 Circuit level – ascending pathways

 Perceptual level – neuronal circuits in the cerebral

cortex
Processing at the Receptor Lever

 The receptor must have specificity for the stimulus

energy
 The receptor’s receptive field must be stimulated

 Stimulus energy must be converted into a graded

potential
 A generator potential in the associated sensory
neuron must reach threshold
Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

 Adaptation occurs when sensory receptors are

subjected to an unchanging stimulus
 Receptor membranes become less responsive

 Receptor potentials decline in frequency or stop

Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

 Receptors responding to pressure, touch, and smell

adapt quickly
 Receptors responding slowly include Merkel’s discs,
Ruffini’s corpuscles, and interoceptors that respond
to chemical levels in the blood
 Pain receptors and proprioceptors do not exhibit
adaptation
Processing at the Circuit Level

 Chains of three neurons (first-, second-, and third-

order) conduct sensory impulses upward to the brain
 First-order neurons – soma reside in dorsal root or
cranial ganglia, and conduct impulses from the skin
to the spinal cord or brain stem
 Second-order neurons – soma reside in the dorsal
horn of the spinal cord or medullary nuclei and
transmit impulses to the thalamus or cerebellum
 Third-order neurons – located in the thalamus and
conduct impulses to the somatosensory cortex of the
cerebrum
Processing at the Perceptual Level

 The thalamus projects fibers to:

 The somatosensory cortex

 Sensory association areas

 First one modality is sent, then those considering

more than one
 The result is an internal, conscious image of the
stimulus
Main Aspects of Sensory Perception

 Perceptual detection – detecting that a stimulus has

occurred and requires summation
 Magnitude estimation – how much of a stimulus is
acting
 Spatial discrimination – identifying the site or
pattern of the stimulus
Main Aspects of Sensory Perception

 Feature abstraction – used to identify a substance

that has specific texture or shape
 Quality discrimination – the ability to identify
submodalities of a sensation (e.g., sweet or sour
tastes)
 Pattern recognition – ability to recognize patterns in
stimuli (e.g., melody, familiar face)
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves

 Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain

 They have sensory, motor, or both sensory and

motor functions
 Each nerve is identified by a number (I through XII)
and a name
 Four cranial nerves carry parasympathetic fibers that
serve muscles and glands
Cranial Nerves

Figure 13.5a
Summary of Function of Cranial Nerves

Figure 13.5b
Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory

 Arises from the olfactory epithelium

 Passes through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid

bone
 Fibers run through the olfactory bulb and terminate
in the primary olfactory cortex
 Functions solely by carrying afferent impulses for
the sense of smell
Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory

Figure I from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve II: Optic

 Arises from the retina of the eye

 Optic nerves pass through the optic canals and

converge at the optic chiasm
 They continue to the thalamus where they synapse

 From there, the optic radiation fibers run to the

visual cortex
 Functions solely by carrying afferent impulses for
vision
Cranial Nerve II: Optic

Figure II Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor

 Fibers extend from the ventral midbrain, pass

through the superior orbital fissure, and go to the
extrinsic eye muscles
 Functions in raising the eyelid, directing the eyeball,
constricting the iris, and controlling lens shape
 Parasympathetic cell bodies are in the ciliary ganglia
Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor

Figure III from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear

 Fibers emerge from the dorsal midbrain and enter

the orbits via the superior orbital fissures; innervate
the superior oblique muscle
 Primarily a motor nerve that directs the eyeball
Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear

Figure IV from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal

 Composed of three divisions: ophthalmic (V1),

maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3)

 Fibers run from the face to the pons via the superior
orbital fissure (V1), the foramen rotundum (V2), and
the foramen ovale (V3)

 Conveys sensory impulses from various areas of the

face (V1) and (V2), and supplies motor fibers (V3) for
mastication
Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal

Figure V from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve VI: Abdcuens

 Fibers leave the inferior pons and enter the orbit via
the superior orbital fissure
 Primarily a motor nerve innervating the lateral
rectus muscle

Figure VI from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve VII: Facial

 Fibers leave the pons, travel through the internal

acoustic meatus, and emerge through the
stylomastoid foramen to the lateral aspect of the face
 Mixed nerve with five major branches

 Motor functions include facial expression, and the

transmittal of autonomic impulses to lacrimal and
salivary glands
 Sensory function is taste from the anterior two-thirds
of the tongue
Cranial Nerve VII: Facial

Figure VII from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve VIII: Vestibulocochlear

 Fibers arise from the hearing and equilibrium

apparatus of the inner ear, pass through the internal
acoustic meatus, and enter the brainstem at the pons-
medulla border
 Two divisions – cochlear (hearing) and vestibular
(balance)
 Functions are solely sensory – equilibrium and
hearing
Cranial Nerve VIII: Vestibulocochlear

Figure VIII from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal

 Fibers emerge from the medulla, leave the skull via

the jugular foramen, and run to the throat
 Nerve IX is a mixed nerve with motor and sensory
functions
 Motor – innervates part of the tongue and pharynx,
and provides motor fibers to the parotid salivary
gland
 Sensory – fibers conduct taste and general sensory
impulses from the tongue and pharynx
Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal

Figure IX from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve X: Vagus

 The only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head

and neck
 Fibers emerge from the medulla via the jugular
foramen
 The vagus is a mixed nerve

 Most motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers to the

heart, lungs, and visceral organs
 Its sensory function is in taste
Cranial Nerve X: Vagus

Figure X from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

 Formed from a cranial root emerging from the

medulla and a spinal root arising from the superior
region of the spinal cord
 The spinal root passes upward into the cranium via
the foramen magnum
 The accessory nerve leaves the cranium via the
jugular foramen
Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

 Primarily a motor nerve

 Supplies fibers to the larynx, pharynx, and soft
palate
 Innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid,
which move the head and neck
Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory

Figure XI from Table 13.2

Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal

 Fibers arise from the medulla and exit the skull via
the hypoglossal canal
 Innervates both extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the
tongue, which contribute to swallowing and speech
Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal

Figure XII from Table 13.2

Reflexes

 A reflex is a rapid, predictable motor response to a

stimulus
 Reflexes may:
 Be inborn (intrinsic) or learned (acquired)

 Involve only peripheral nerves and the spinal cord

 Involve higher brain centers as well

Reflex Arc

 There are five components of a reflex arc

 Receptor – site of stimulus
 Sensory neuron – transmits the afferent impulse to
the CNS
 Integration center – either monosynaptic or
polysynaptic region within the CNS
 Motor neuron – conducts efferent impulses from
the integration center to an effector
 Effector – muscle fiber or gland that responds to
the efferent impulse
Reflex Arc

Spinal cord
(in cross-section)
Stimulus
2 Sensory neuron 3 Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Interneuron
Skin

Figure 13.14
Stretch and Deep Tendon Reflexes

 For skeletal muscles to perform normally:

 The Golgi tendon organs (proprioceptors) must
constantly inform the brain as to the state of the
muscle
 Stretch reflexes initiated by muscle spindles must
maintain healthy muscle tone
Muscle Spindles
 Are composed of 3-10 intrafusal muscle fibers that
lack myofilaments in their central regions, are
noncontractile, and serve as receptive surfaces
 Muscle spindles are wrapped with two types of
afferent endings: primary sensory endings of type Ia
fibers and secondary sensory endings of type II
fibers
 These regions are innervated by gamma () efferent
fibers
 Note: contractile muscle fibers are extrafusal fibers
and are innervated by alpha () efferent fibers
Muscle Spindles

Figure 13.15
Operation of the Muscle Spindles

 Stretching the muscles activates the muscle spindle

 There is an increased rate of action potential in Ia
fibers

 Contracting the muscle reduces tension on the

muscle spindle
 There is a decreased rate of action potential on Ia
fibers
Operation of the Muscle Spindles

Figure 13.16
Stretch Reflex
 Stretching the muscle activates the muscle spindle
 Excited  motor neurons of the spindle cause the
stretched muscle to contract
 Afferent impulses from the spindle result in
inhibition of the antagonist
 Example: patellar reflex
 Tapping the patellar tendon stretches the quadriceps
and starts the reflex action
 The quadriceps contract and the antagonistic
hamstrings relax
Stretch Reflex

Figure 13.17
Golgi Tendon Reflex

 The opposite of the stretch reflex

 Contracting the muscle activates the Golgi tendon

organs
 Afferent Golgi tendon neurons are stimulated,
neurons inhibit the contracting muscle, and the
antagonistic muscle is activated
 As a result, the contracting muscle relaxes and the
antagonist contracts
Golgi Tendon Reflex

Figure 13.18
Flexor and Crossed Extensor Reflexes

 The flexor reflex is initiated by a painful stimulus

(actual or perceived) that causes automatic
withdrawal of the threatened body part
 The crossed extensor reflex has two parts
 The stimulated side is withdrawn

 The contralateral side is extended

Crossed Extensor Reflex

Figure 13.19
Superficial Reflexes
 Initiated by gentle cutaneous stimulation
 Example:
 Plantar reflex is initiated by stimulating the lateral
aspect of the sole of the foot
 The response is downward flexion of the toes
 Indirectly tests for proper corticospinal tract
functioning
 Babinski’s sign: abnormal plantar reflex indicating
corticospinal damage where the great toe
dorsiflexes and the smaller toes fan laterally