Comparative

Theories
Realism and Liberalism
What we have been learning and where next
Globalisation has introduced us to
• States who have benefited from
global trade and some that have not
• Political attempts to overcome
nationalist self-interest and co-
operate for the common good.
• The spread of political ideologies –
liberalism and the nationalist and
sectarian backlash against
globalisation.
• The positive and negative impacts of
increased economic, cultural and
political integration
Next is Comparative Theories
• Looks at state motivations and
interests, power, order and disorder.
• Regime types interact with
power rankings to impact
global order.
• Knowing the major global players,
their strengths weaknesses and
regimes helps us to apply
the theories
• And helps understand the work of the
UN
Power rankings check
1. How did you get on with the research and power ranking task – any
questions?
2. On your mini whiteboard, write down the names of any
superpowers, great powers and regional powers.
3. What is the difference between a superpower and a regional
power?
4. Which states have recently 'emerged' as regional powers?
5. Which have recently 'emerged' as great powers?
6. Have any emerged as superpowers?
Comparative Theories
• Compulsory 12 mark question on unit 3 – no choice of
question.
• Compare similarities and differences between and within
Realism and Liberalism, and their links to core ideologies.
• Realism vs Liberalism – two fundamental theories in
International Relations which structure many (although
not all) debates.
• This topic builds on Core ideologies –
• For level 4 you must make 'coherent' links to core
ideologies in your answer. Usually Hobbes and Locke's
ideas about the state of nature and the tension
between individual freedom (state sovereignty),
security, and of 'the common good' but it can be any
idea or thinker.
Recap: What did these scenarios tell us about the
interests, motivations and behaviour of states?
Recap the prisoner's dilemma

• Although the best outcome is co-operation with

each other (neither confesses), the chances are
you will not co-operate because the safest
strategy is to expect betrayal ​
(the other person will probably confess) ​
• So therefore it is rational for you to betray them
(and confess).​
• An absolute gain for both of you (3 months rather
than 5 years) is rejected in favour of a greater
gain for yourself (freedom rather than 20 years)
 Realists
There is no supranational authority in the
international system.

You do not know the intentions of others but it is

safest to assume that they will be looking after their
own interest and not yours.

So you should prioritise only your own interests,

because if you make efforts to co-operate these will
result in betrayal.

Your own interest is your short-term survival in a

world where others cannot be trusted not to harm
you.
Recap the stag hunt dilemma
• In this dilemma, the hunters can assume that they
share a common interest and therefore it is rational
to co-operate, giving up some autonomy in exchange
for the other hunter's cooperation and added
strength to overpower the stag.
• NOTE – Rousseau did not use this analogy to describe
international relations – in fact, although a liberal in
terms of the citizen and state, he was a nationalist
and a reluctant realist in his views on international
relations
• But the analogy can be applied to states pooling their
sovereignty to achieve greater ambitions through
collective action.
Liberals
There is no supranational authority in the
international system – but there can be rule-based
behaviour.

You do not know the intentions of others but you

can assume that if they are rational like you, they
want what's best for themselves)
Reality issues?
So you should prioritise your mutual interests,
because if you make efforts to co-operate, others
will reciprocate.

That will be in your long-term best interests as

well as theirs.
Classical realism
vs classical
liberalism
Classical Realism
Ideas about
Human nature and states' motivations
Power relationships
Sovereignty and security
RECAP: Thomas Hobbes and the state of nature
1. What did Hobbes say about the nature of human beings?

2. What is ‘the state of nature’?

3. What did he say would happen in the ‘state of nature’?

4. Who is the ‘Leviathan’ and what is his role in society?

5. Is it rational for individuals to submit to the Leviathan?

6. Which is more important for social order; democracy or authority? Why?

7. If a sovereign were to put a citizen to death, would that be illegitimate?

You can only choose one...
 Classical Realist
Thinkers
• Thucydides – the Melian
Dialogue (c400 BCE)
• Niccolo Machiavelli – The
Prince (1513)
• Thomas Hobbes - Leviathan
(1651) - KEY THINKER
• Hans Morgenthau – Politics
Among Nations (1954)
Thucydides wrote ‘The History of the Peloponnesian
war’ 431-404 BCE, which includes The ‘Melian dialogue’

The Athenian city state has built a

powerful empire (the Delian
League). They are at war with Sparta
(leaders of the Peloponnesian
League). Athens are currently winning
the war.
The island of Melos is trying to remain
neutral but the Athenians don't want to
risk them falling under Spartan influence
so they give them a choice – submit and
pay tribute to the Athenians, or be
destroyed.
Thucydides:
The 'Melian Dialogue'
Thucydides imagines the dialogue
between Athenians and Melians.

The Melian Dialogue Storyboard by ntambaoan (storyboardthat.com)

The Melians decide to take a chance on fighting, arguing
that the gods would protect them because they were in the
moral right.
The Athenians mock this belief, saying that the gods are
only interested in power, not morality. They say...
- The Athenians represent the
realist view, which mocks
the moral idealism of the
Melians.
- A hugely influential idea
that is still argued over
today!
Machiavelli - Diplomat in the
Italian Renaissance city state of Florence
Key arguments in 'The Prince', 1513:
• The prince’s ultimate goal is to maintain the state,
which requires loyalty.
• He cannot rely on peoples’ loyalty unless it is
based on fear. Cruelty is a more reliable way to
maintain power than benevolence.
• He must therefore be ruthless and pragmatic and
should prioritise self-interest, not morality
or justice.
Still controversial! Some see it as a straightforward
description of political reality. Others view 'the
Prince' as a manual for tyrants.
 Machiavelli – ‘the Prince’ (1513) Key Quotes
Humans are ‘insatiable, arrogant, crafty and shifting, and
above all, malignant, iniquitous, violent and savage’

Anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being

feared than in being loved... Love endures by a bond which men,
being scoundrels, may break whenever it serves their advantage
to do so; but fear is supported by the dread of pain, which is ever
present.”

"men must be either pampered or annihilated. They avenge light offenses; they
cannot avenge severe ones.”
Hans Morgenthau - Politics Among Nations -
1954
Born in 1904 in Germany, emigrated to US in 1937
“Political realism believes that politics, like society in
general, is governed by objective laws that have their
roots in human nature.”
“The struggle for power is universal in time and
space and is an undeniable fact of experience.”
"Power positions do not yield to arguments,
however rational and morally valid, but only
to superior power"
Prioritising the national interest over freedom

“While the individual has a moral

right to sacrifice himself in
defense of such a moral principle
(liberty), the state has no right to
let its moral disapprobation
(disapproval) of the infringement
of liberty get in the way
of successful political action,
itself inspired by the moral
principle of national survival.”
A summary of classical realist arguments
• The state system is anarchic (the state of nature) and therefore prone to conflict (Hobbes)
• If we understand human nature, we can understand state behaviour. (Morgenthau)
Stat
es
• There is no moral element to state behaviour other than the national interest. (Morgenthau)

• Power is finite (zero-sum), so if one state wins another must lose. You must destroy your enemies
completely (Machiavelli) so losers risk annihilation. (Thucydides, Machiavelli)
Pow • The struggle for power is universal so realists are not interested in regime types (Morgenthau)
er

• Given the above assumptions, states know that it is rational for other states to act in their own
Rati interests (Machiavelli)
onal • It is impossible to trust each other, so their highest priority is to defend themselves (all theorists)
ity

• States that cannot trust each other cannot build lasting co-operation without the protection of a
hegemonic power (Hobbes)
Conf • Therefore conflict between states is highly likely and alliances are destined to fail.
lict