MUTATION: Changes in

the Genetic Code

 When you copy from the blackboard, sometimes you may make
mistakes. In a similar way, mistakes may occur when DNA is
replicated. Changes in the DNA sequence may delete such protein
or change its structure.
Any change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases in the DNA, any mistake
in the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA or pairing of
the codon and anticodon, may cause changes in the kind, sequence and
number of amino acids of proteins synthesized by cells.

Changes in the protein structure or level of expression may lead to

changes in cellular properties and behavior, as a result, the organism is
affected.

Changes in the genes can occur for a variety of reasons.

Mutation may be induced by factors called mutagens.

Mutagens:
• Toxic chemicals
• Harmful radiation
• Sometimes, mistakes occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis
Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive
cells and body cells

Only mutations in sex cells pass on to offspring

Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by

changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm
or an egg cell

If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene becomes a

part of the genetic make up of the offspring

If mutation is severe, the resulting protein may be nonfunctional,

and the embryo may not develop
Two Types of
Mutations that can
occur in gamete cells
Gene mutation

• is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that

makes up a gene

Chromosomal mutation

• occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene

deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may
occur during the cell cycle and meiosis
• It maybe caused by parts of chromosomes
breaking off or rejoining incorrectly
Some mutations in a Mutations in sex cells
body cell are known can cause birth
to cause cancer defects

A severe mutation
may lead to cell
death and may have
no effect on the body
 When is mutation inherited? Why are
mutations in sex cells heritable?
Many diseases are caused by the effects of
inherited genes. In most cases, there is only a
small difference between DNA sequences in the
defective gene and a normal one. This
difference is enough to cause serious and often
fatal diseases. These disease-causing genes are
the result of a mutation. They may be passed
from one generation to the next if present in
gametes.
 Changes in the
sequences of bases in
normal hemoglobin
and the one affected
by mutation.

•A recessive gene causes sickle –

cell anemia, where most of the
red blood cells stiffen and
become sickle shape in affected
people. These diseased cells
carry less oxygen than normal
cells. People affected by the
disease eventually die.
 Consider what might happen if an incorrect amino acid
was inserted in a growing protein chain during the process
of translation. Do you think this will affect the structure of
the entire molecule? This can possibly happen in point
mutation where a change in a single base pair occurs.

Read the two sentences below. What happens when a single letter in the first sentence is changed?
THE DOG BIT THE CAT.
THE DOG BIT THE CAR.
 What will happen if a single base is deleted from a DNA
strand? If the new sequence with a deleted base was
transcribed, then every codon after the deleted base
would be different.

Deletion or insertion of a base may change the reading frame of the codon leading to frame shift
mutation. Read again the two sentences below.
THE DOG BIT THE CAT.
THE DOB ITT HEC AT.
 Translocations
A translocation occurs
when a piece of one
chromosome breaks off and
attaches to another
chromosome. This type of
rearrangement is described
as balanced if no genetic
material is gained or lost in
the cell. If there is a gain or
loss of genetic material, the
translocation is described as
unbalanced
 Deletion

A deletion, as related to
genomics, is a type of
mutation that involves the
loss of one or more
nucleotides from a
segment of DNA. A
deletion can involve the
loss of any number of
nucleotides, from a single
nucleotide to an entire
piece of a chromosome.
 Inversion
An inversion occurs when
a chromosome breaks in
two places; the resulting
piece of DNA is reversed
and re-inserted into the
chromosome. Genetic
material may or may not be
lost as a result of the
chromosome breaks.
Guide Questions:
1. How are the three chromosomal aberrations different
from each other? How are they similar?
2.Do you think the normal genetic content of the
chromosome is affected?
3. Which condition results to gain of chromosome
material? Loss of chromosome material?
4.What are some possible effects of these chromosomal
mutations?
Abnormalities in chromosomal structure
may occur during meiosis. The normal
process of crossing-over and
recombination may be affected, such
that chromosomes break and reunite
the wrong segments. If there is a loss or
gain of chromosomal material, there can
be significant clinical consequences.
Changes that affect the structure of chromosomes
can cause problems with growth, development,
and function of the body’s systems. These
changes can affect many genes along the
chromosome and disrupt the proteins made
from these genes. Structural changes can occur
during the formation of egg or sperm cells in fetal
development, or in any cell after birth. Pieces of
DNA can be rearranged within one chromosome
or transferred between two or more
chromosomes.
The effects of structural changes depend
on their size and location, and whether
any genetic material is gained or lost.
Some changes cause medical problems,
while others may have no effect on a
person’s health. The gain or loss of
chromosome material can lead to a
variety of genetic disorders.
 “Cri du chat”
• is caused by the deletion of
part of the short arm of
chromosome 5
• is French, and the condition
is so named because affected
babies make high-pitched
cries that sound like a cat
• Affected individuals have
wide-set eyes, a small head
and jaw, are moderately to
severely mentally retarded,
and very short
Down’s syndrome

• is usually caused by an extra copy of

chromosome 21 (trisomy 21)
• Characteristics include decreased
muscle tone, stockier build,
asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes,
and mild to moderate mental
retardation
 Edwards Syndrome
• is the second most common
trisomy after Down’s syndrome
• is a trisomy of chromosome 18
• Symptoms include mental and
motor retardation and
numerous congenital anomalies
causing serious health problems
• About 99% die in infancy
• However, those who live past
their first birthday, usually are
quite healthy thereafter
• They have a characteristic hand
appearance with clenched hands
and overlapping fingers
 Jacobsen syndrome

• Is also called terminal 11q deletion

disorder
• Is a very rare disorder
• Those affected have normal
intelligence or mild mental
retardation, with poor or
excessive language skills
• Most have a bleeding disorder
called Paris-Trousseau syndrome
 Klinefelter’s
syndrome (XXY)

• Men with this condition are usually

sterile and tend to have longer arms
and legs and to be taller than their
peers
• They are often shy and quiet and
have a higher incidence of speech
delay
Turner’s syndrome
(X instead of XX or
XY)

• Female sexual characteristics are

present but underdeveloped
• They often have a short stature, low
hairline, abnormal eye features and
bone development and a “caved-in”
appearance to the chest
 Human Karyotyping
Occasionally, chromosomal material is lost or rearranged during
the formation of gametes or during cell division of the early
embryo. Such changes, primarily the result of nondisjunction or
translocation, are so severe that the pregnancy ends in
miscarriage – meaning loss of an embryo or fetus before the 20th
week of pregnancy or fertilization does not occur at all. It is
estimated that one in 156 live births has some kind of
chromosomal abnormality.
 Human Karyotyping

Some of the abnormalities associated with chromosome structure

and number can be detected by a test called a karyotype. A
karyotype is an image of the full set of chromosomes of an
individual that displays the normal number, size, and shape.
Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus or test for certain
defects through examination of cells from uterine fluid – a
procedure called amniocentesis – or through sampling of
placental membranes.
Amniocentesis
Karyotype of Human Male and Female