TEMPERATURE AND HYDRATION:

ENERGETICS OF LOCOMOTION
Introduction
Maintenance of thermal balance is relevant for
maintaining homeostasis, preventing health injuries
and enhancing physical performance.

Moderate levels of dehydration (> 2% of body mass

loss) can impair thermoregulatory responses and
reduces cardiac output (Gonzales Alonso et al., 1997).

Sports performance and skills are negatively affected

by dehydration (Edwards et al., 2007).

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Introduction
Overview

«Physiology of man in the desert»

E.F. Adolph, 1947

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Introduction
Overview

Source:
http://thermal.mtnw-usa.co
m/products/manikin-pc2-hu
man-comfort-software

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Thermoregulation

(W/m2)

(Winslow, Gagge & Herrington, 1939)

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Sweating
At rest, sweat evaporation counts for the 20% to total
heat loss (Sawka, Wenger & Pandolf, 1996).

When environmental temperature is similar or greater

than skin temperature, sweat evaporation becomes the
main mechanism for heat loss.

Evaporation of 1 g of water (sweat) from the skin

transfers to the environment about 2426 J (Wenger,
1972).

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Sweating
Exercise affects sweat rate, and Van Beaument and Bullard
(1966) were the first to report this phenomenon upon observing
that sweating occured immediately (1.5 - 2 secs) with the onset
of dynamic exercise, as well as during isometric exercise of
humans in warm environmental conditions. Stimulation of
muscle metaboreceptors is capable of modulating sweat rate
during exercise.

Other studies (Shibasaki M et al., 2004) showed the

stimulation of muscle mechanoreceptors is capable of
modulating sweat rate.

Master Degree in Applied Kinesiology - Exercise Physiology

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From van Beaumont & Bullard, Science, 141: 643–646, 1963.
Reprinted with permission from AAAS.

Master Degree in Applied Kinesiology - Exercise Physiology

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Experiment

70 kg;
30 mlO2/kg*min;
RER = 0.90
60 min;
Ƞ = 25%

Sweat evaporation needed to

maintain thermal balance
(L/h)?
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Experiment

(W); 1 L = 2426 kJ

1 L O2 = 20.6 kJ O2 TOT = 126 L  2596 kJ = 649 kJ

0 = 2596 – 649 ± 0 ± 0 ± 0 - ? (kJ)

Energia termica totale = 1947 kJ

0.803 L/h
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Introduction

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 EFFECT OF ABIENT
TEMPERATURE ON
AEROBIC PERFORMANCE

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions
O2max was reduced by ~4% at 35 °C, ~9% at 40 °C and
~18% at 45 °C.

Reduction in performance was strongly related to the

reduced O2max

No differences between men and women.

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Conclusions

O2max was reduced in the heat by 15%, associated with

the cardiovascular drift, increased heart rate (11%), and
reduced SV (11%).

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 EFFECT OF AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE ON AEROBIC
RUNNING PERFORMANCE

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19
20
Introduction

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Introduction

Sawka et al., 2012

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Introduction

Sawka et al., 2012

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Conclusions
No effect of acclimatization was observed on metabolic
parameters of running, but running in the heat
increased physiological variables.

Heat acclimatization reduced increase in core

temperature rate and delayed hyperthermia.

Subjects drank more in the heat, but 3% BM

dehydration was easily achieved in both conditions.
No influence of acclimatization protocol on fluids
intake.
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Conclusions
Core temperature was not related to marathon
running time or fluids balance.

Good athletes can achieve also great core

temperatures.

Skin temperature, mainly after dehydration, is an

important parameter for aerobic performance.

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EFFECT OF DEHYDRATION ON
SOCCER PERFORMANCE

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions
In self paced activities, as soccer, dehydration seems to
be less effective on performance.

Moderate water loss was detrimental to several

physiological parameters, and mainly specific sport
performance.

Physiological or psychological effects?

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 EFFECT OF BODY
TEMPERATURE ON FATIGUE
AND EXHAUSTION TIME

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions
Fatigue is clearly related to body internal temperature,
as observed at the exhaustion time.

Internal temperature in trained subjects was similar at

the exhaustion time (~40 °C at 50-60% O2max in the
heat).

Exhaustion time depended on initial core temperature

and rate of increase in body temperature.

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Conclusions
Acclimatization delayed exhaustion time, greaterly
thanks to the lower initial core temperature.

In these conditions, lactate accumulation or glycogen

deplation seemed to not be limiting factors.

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EFFECT OF INTERMITTENT AND
CONTINUOUS EXERCISE ON
BODY TEMPERATURE

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Introduction

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Conclusions
When evaporation was restricted, intermittent
exercise showed a reduced endurance time (-14 min),
greater core temperature at 60 min (0.40 °C) and a
greater rate of core temperature increase after 40 min
(33%), as compared with continuous exercise.

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 TEMPERATURE AND
HYDRATION IN TRIATHLON

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Introduction

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Conclusions
This study showed that even with a great decrease in
BM, euhydration was maintained as shown through
urine specific gravity and plasma sodium.

During exercise it has been observed only a small

increase of about 1° C in core temperature.

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EFFECT OF BODY SIZE ON
THERMOREGULATION

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Introduction

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Conclusions

Runners with a lower body mass have some

advantages compared with bigger subjects in
conditions in which heat dissipation mechanisms are
at their limit.

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EFFECT OF DEHYDRATION AND
TEMPERATURE ON TENNIS
PERFORMANCE

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions

Stressful environmental conditions in tennis produce

high skin temperature and rating of thermal
discomfort, but core temperature remained with safe
levels.

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EFFECT OF DEHYDRATION AND
BODY TEMPERATURE ON
O2 KINETICS

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions

Hyperthermia, associated or not with dehydration,

reduced mean response time (17-23%), O2max (16%),
and performance time (51-53%).

Hyperthermia, associated or now with dehydration,

was not associated with a diminished rate of rise in O2.

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EFFECT OF DEHYDRATION AND
BODY TEMPERATURE ON
CARDIAC FUNCTION

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions
Oxygen consumption was unaffeced by ambient
temperature.

Heart Rates were higher in the heat.

Cardiac Output was reduced in the heat (reduced

stroke volume), mainly with increasing intensities.

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EFFECT OF FITNESS AND
FATNESS ON
THERMOREGULATION

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Introduction

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Conclusions
Exercise time was greater in trained lean subjects when
compared with untrained or fat subjects.

No differences between trained fat subjects and untrained

fat subjects.

No differences between the two untrained groups.

Fitness advantage was related to a better tolerance of core

temperature.
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 COOLING EFFECTS ON
THERMOREGULATION AND
PERFORMANCE

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Conclusions
Precooling decreases core temperature before exercise.

No differences after precooling in rate of core

temperature rise or locomotion efficiency.

Good opportunities for people affected my MS

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Introduction

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Thermal balance in the youth

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Thermal balance in the youth

Inbar et al., 2004

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 Thermal balance in the youth
CHARACTERISTICS EFFECTS

Greater energy cost of Greater metabolic heat storage

locomotion
(Falk et al., 2008)
Smaller sweat gland size Smaller secretory portion and
reduced sweat rate
(Shibasaki et al., 2006)
Reduced hormonal sensitivity Reduced sweat rate
and concentration
(Falk, 1998)
Reduced sweat glands Reduced sweat rate
cholinergic stimulus
(Falk, 1998)
Lower cardiac output Increased cardiovascular strain
(Gomes et al., 2013)
Increased cutaneous Increased dry pathways heat
vasodilation transfer
(Gomes et al., 2013)
Greater body surface to body Increased dry pathways heat
mass ratio transfer
(Inoue et al., 2004)

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Fluid balance in the youth

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 Fluid balance in the youth

Effects of dehydration are (Sawka et al., 1985):

(i) reduced plasma volume;
(ii) increased plasma osmolality;
(iii) greater increase in core temperature and heart rate;
(iv) reduced sweat rate with a severe hypohydration.

With moderate dehydration, sports performance is

negatively affected (Edwards et al., 2007).

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 Fluid balance in the youth

Arnaoutis et al., 2014 (ahead of print)

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Young athletes exercising in the heat:
Practical Suggestions

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 Practical Suggestions

Children are as efficient thermoregulators as adults, even

if through different mechanisms (Inbar et al., 2004).

Exhaustion time, rate of increase in heart rate, core

temperature and cardiac index were similar between
prepubertal boys and young adults (Rowland et al.,
2008).

Core temperature seems to affect exhaustion time

(Rowland et al., 2007)

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Practical Suggestions

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Practical Suggestions

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 Practical Suggestions

Age related factors seems to

reduce the effectiveness of
exercise-in-heat acclimatization
protocols (Inbar et al., 1981).

Lack of protocols designed for

children and adolescents
(Brokenshire et al., 2009).

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 Practical Suggestions

In prepubertal boys total sweat

loss can be half than in young
adults (Inbar et al., 2004)

Different sweat electrolytes

composition (Meyer et al., 2007)
PP Boys Young Adults

Na+ 33.0±2.2 50.0±8.0

mmol/L mmol/L

Cl- 22.0±1.8 40.0±7.5

mmol/L mmol/L

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 Practical Suggestions

Additional CHOs
(Vist and Maughan, 1995)

Additional NaCl
(Maughan and Murray, 2001)

Appropriate flavors
(Bar Or and Wilk, 1996)

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 Conclusion
Although sweat rate in the youngster is relevantly
lower than in adults, through different mechanisms
children are as efficient thermoregulators as adults
are.

Cognitive factors associated with heat perception are

not deeply studied in the pediatric population, do not
providing sufficient knowledge on this
thermoregulatory aspect.

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 Conclusion
Fluid and electrolyte losses through sweat are
different in the youngster and in the adults, and in
prepubertal boys even small levels of hypohydration
can affect thermoregulatory functions.

Drinking ad libitum is not sufficient to allow an

appropriate fluids replacement, thus it is suggested to
propose specific and individualized strategies for
hydration in the pediatric population.

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Thank you for your attention!

“No one, unless he is grossly ignorant of what science has done for
mankind, can entertain any doubt of the incalculable benefits which will
hereafter be derived from physiology”

( C. Darwin)

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