Computer Networks (EC-330)

Lecture 4 – Network Layer

Muhammad Umar Farooq, Ph.D.
ufarooq@ceme.nust.edu.pk
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-2

Network layer
application
 transport segment from transport
network

sending to receiving host data link

physical
network network
 on sending side network
data link
data link
physical
data link
physical

encapsulates segments physical network

data link
network
data link

into datagrams physical physical

 on receiving side, delivers network

data link
network
data link

segments to transport
physical physical
network
data link

layer network
physical
application
transport
 network layer protocols in network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link

every host, router data link

physical
physical physical

 router examines header

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
Network Layer 4-3
Two key network-layer functions
 forwarding: move analogy:
packets from router’s
input to appropriate  routing: process of
router output planning trip from source
to dest
 routing: determine route
taken by packets from  forwarding: process of
source to dest. getting through single
interchange
 routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-4

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-5

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “ connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host address

application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-6

Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses, so
routing algorithm rather than list individual
destination address
local forwarding table
list range of addresses
dest address output (aggregate table entries)
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-7

Datagram forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-8
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.

Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-9
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-10

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection
• addressing conventions
• datagram format
• RIP, OSPF, BGP
network • packet handling conventions

layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”

link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-11

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
 20 bytes of TCP
(variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of IP
typically a TCP to visit.
 = 40 bytes + app
or UDP segment)
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-12

 IP fragmentation, reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-level fragmentation:

…
frame in: one large datagram
 different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
 large IP datagram divided
(“ fragmented” ) within net reassembly
 one datagram becomes
several datagrams
 “ reassembled” only at …
final destination
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 4-13
 IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
 MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams

1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-14

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-15

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.2.1
identifier for host, router
interface 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface: connection
between host/router and 223.1.3.27
physical link 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
 host typically has one or
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
two interfaces (e.g., wired
Ethernet, wireless 802.11)
 IP addresses associated
with each interface 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-16

 IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces 223.1.2.1
actually connected?
A: we’ll learn about 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-17

Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1
 subnet part - high order
bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 host part - low order
bits 223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
 what’s a subnet ?
 device interfaces with subnet
same subnet part of IP
223.1.3.2
address 223.1.3.1
 can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-18

Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
recipe 223.1.1.1

 to determine the
223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
subnets, detach each 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

interface from its host 223.1.2.2

or router, creating 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

islands of isolated subnet

networks
223.1.3.2
 each isolated network 223.1.3.1

is called a subnet
223.1.3.0/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-19
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-20

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-21

Hierarchical addressing & route aggregation

Network Layer 4-22

Hierarchical addressing & route aggregation

Network Layer 4-23

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows: control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip-
>properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “ plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-24

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network server when
it joins network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected/“ on” )
 support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “ DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “ DHCP offer” msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: “ DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “ DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-25

DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in this
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer 4-26

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCPyiaddr:
server 0.0.0.0
out there?
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
address you can use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
that IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: OK. You’ve
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
got that IPID:
transaction address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-27
DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address
on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)

Network Layer 4-28

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth
first-hop router, addr of
Phy DNS server: use DHCP
DHCP
 DHCP request encapsulated
in UDP, encapsulated in IP,
DHCP DHCP 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP UDP Ethernet
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
 Ethernet frame broadcast
Phy server built into (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
router received at router running
DHCP server
 Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed to
DHCP

Network Layer 4-29

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP
 DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop router
Phy for client, name & IP
address of DNS server
 encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded
DHCP UDP to client, demuxing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
Phy server built into  client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DSN server, IP
address of its first-hop
router

Network Layer 4-30

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address
space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-31

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-32

 NAT: network address translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving local datagrams with source or

network have same single destination in this network
source NAT IP address: have 10.0.0/24 address for
138.76.29.7,different source source, destination (as usual)
port numbers
Network Layer 4-33
 NAT: network address translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far
as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP
address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus)

Network Layer 4-34

NAT: network address translation
implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of

every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr

 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address,

port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair

 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in

dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

Network Layer 4-35

 NAT: network address translation
NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-36

NAT: network address translation
 16-bit port-number field:
 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, e.g., P2P applications
 address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6

Network Layer 4-37

NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to server
with address 10.0.0.1
 server address 10.0.0.1 local to 10.0.0.1
client
LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr) ?
 only one externally visible NATed 10.0.0.4
address: 138.76.29.7
 solution1: statically configure 138.76.29.7 NAT
router
NAT to forward incoming
connection requests at given
port to server
 e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1 port
25000

Network Layer 4-38

NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and
Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway
Device (IGD) Protocol. Allows 10.0.0.1
NATed host to: IGD
 learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
 add/remove port mappings
(with lease times) NAT
router

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-39

 NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 external client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to 10.0.0.1
by client relay initiated
by NATed host
3. relaying
client established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router

Network Layer 4-40

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-41

 ICMP: internet control message protocol

 IP protocol is a best-effort delivery service, however it has two deficiencies

 Lack of error control
 Lack of assistance mechanisms
 IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-correction mechanism
 What happens when something goes wrong?
 What happens if a router must discard a datagram because it cannot find a route to
the final destination?
 What if the time-to-live field has a zero value?
 What if it has to discard all fragments because not all were received in a
predetermined time limit?
 IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for host and management queries.
 ICMP was designed to compensate for these deficiencies.

Network Layer
ICMP: internet control message protocol
Type Code description
0 0 echo reply (ping)
 used by hosts & routers to 3 0 dest. network unreachable
communicate network- 3 1 dest host unreachable
level information 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
 error reporting: unreachable 3 3 dest port unreachable
host, network, port, 3 6 dest network unknown
protocol 3 7 dest host unknown
 echo request/reply (used by 4 0 source quench (congestion
ping) control - not used)
0 Redirect for network
 network-layer “ above” 5
5 0 Redirect for host
IP: 5 0 Redirect for ToS & Network
 ICMP msgs carried in IP 5 0 Redirect for ToS & host
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
 ICMP message: type, code 9 0 route advertisement
plus first 8 bytes of IP 10 0 router discovery
datagram causing error 11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header
13 0 Timestamp Network Layer 4-43
 ICMP (ECHO) Header Format
 IP Header (in blue):
protocol set to 1
(ICMP) and Type of
Service set to 0.
 ICMP Header (in red):
 Type (8 bits) Code (8
bits)
 Checksum (16 bits)
 Header Data (32 bits),
which in this case
(ICMP echo request
and replies), will be
composed of identifier
(16 bits) and sequence
number (16 bits).
 ICMP Payload: payload
for the different kind of Source: Wikipedia
answers; can be an
arbitrary length, left to
implementation detail.

Network Layer 4-44

Traceroute and ICMP
 source sends series of UDP
segments to dest
 first set has TTL =1
 second set has TTL=2, etc.
 unlikely port number
 when nth set of datagrams
arrives to nth router:
 router discards datagrams
 and sends source ICMP
messages (type 11, code 0)
 ICMP messages includes
name of router & IP address
3 probes 3 probes
3 probes
 when ICMP messages
arrives, source records
RTTs
stopping criteria:
 UDP segment eventually
arrives at destination host
 destination returns ICMP
“ port unreachable”
message (type 3, code 3)
 source stops
Network Layer 4-45
 IPv6: motivation
 initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-46

IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “ flow.”
(concept of“ flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-47
IPv6 Address Format
 128 bits  8 groups of 4 hexadecimal digits
(Each group represents 16 bits), separated by a :

Network Layer 4-48

Exercise
 What is the complete IPv6 address for

 What is the complete IPv6 address for

Invalid address: Only one group of zeros can be

suppressed!

Network Layer 4-49

Other changes from IPv4
 checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
 options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “ Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “ Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-50

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
 not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
 no “ flag days”
 how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers

IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-51
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-52

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-53
IPv6: adoption
 US National Institutes of Standards estimate [2013]:
 ~3% of industry IP routers
 ~11% of US gov’t routers

 Long (long!) time for deployment, use

 20 years and counting!
 think of application-level changes in last 20 years: WWW,
Facebook, …
 Why?

Network Layer 4-54

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-55

Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding table
local forwarding at this router
dest address output
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-56

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-57

Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer 4-58

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-59

A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 net topology, link costs
known to all nodes
 accomplished via “ link
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 computes least cost paths
from one node (‘source” )
to all other nodes
 gives forwarding table for
that node
 iterative: after k iterations,
know least cost path to k
dest.’s
notation:
 c(x,y): link cost from
node x to y; = ∞ if not
direct neighbors
 D(v): current value of
cost of path from source to
dest. v
 p(v): predecessor node
along path from source to
v
 N': set of nodes whose
least cost path definitively
known
Network Layer 4-60
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-61

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5 7
4
 construct shortest path tree by
tracing predecessor nodes 8
 ties can exist (can be broken u
3 w y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-62
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-63

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-64

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
cost from neighbor v to destination y
cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-65
Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 2 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x 1
y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-66
Distance vector algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 node x:
 knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors. For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-67

Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor,
it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y)

converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-68

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, asynchronous: each node:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
 DV update message from
neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
DV changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors then notify their changed, notify neighbors
neighbors if necessary

Network Layer 4-69

 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-70
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-71
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-72

Hierarchical routing
our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “ flat”

… not true in practice

scale: with 600 million administrative autonomy

destinations:
 can’t store all dest’s in
routing tables!
 routing table exchange
would swamp links!
 internet = network of
networks
 each network admin may
want to control routing in its
own network

Network Layer 4-73

Hierarchical routing
 aggregate routers into gateway router:
regions, “ autonomous  at “ edge” of its own AS
systems” (AS)  has link to router in another
 routers in same AS run AS
same routing protocol
 “ intra-AS” routing
protocol
 routers in different AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol

Network Layer 4-74

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d  forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS algorithm
Routing Routing
algorithm algorithm  intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding
for internal dests
table  inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for external
dests
Network Layer 4-75
Chapter 4: outline (Self Study)
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-76

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
 datagram format
(Self Study)
 RIP
 IPv4 addressing
 OSPF
 ICMP
 BGP
 IPv6
Software Defined Networks
4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-77

 Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact with each other in control plane to compute
forwarding tables

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-78

 Logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local
control agents (CAs) in routers to compute forwarding tables

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-79

Software defined networking (SDN)
 Internet network layer: historically has been
implemented via distributed, per-router approach
 monolithic router contains switching hardware, runs
proprietary implementation of Internet standard
protocols (IP, RIP, IS-IS, OSPF, BGP) in proprietary
router OS (e.g., Cisco IOS)
 different “middleboxes” for different network layer
functions: firewalls, load balancers, NAT boxes, ..

 ~2005: renewed interest in rethinking network

control plane

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-80

Software defined networking (SDN)
Why a logically centralized control plane?
easier network management: avoid router
misconfigurations, greater flexibility of traffic flows
table-based forwarding (OpenFlow API) allows
“programming” routers
 centralized “programming” easier: compute tables
centrally and distribute
 distributed “programming: more difficult: compute
tables as result of distributed algorithm (protocol)
implemented in each and every router
open (non-proprietary) implementation of control
plane

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-81

 Analogy: mainframe to PC evolution *

Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap Ap
App
p p p p p p p p p p
Specialized
Applications Open Interface

Specialized Window
Mac
Operating s or Linux or OS
(OS)
System
Open Interface
Specialized
Hardware
Microprocessor

Vertically integrated Horizontal

Closed, proprietary Open interfaces
Slow innovation Rapid innovation
Small industry Huge industry
* Slide courtesy: N. McKeown Network Layer: Control Plane 5-82
Traffic engineering: difficult traditional
routing
5
3
2 v w 5

u 2
3
1 z
1
2
x 1 y

Q: what if network operator wants u-to-z traffic to flow along

uvwz, x-to-z traffic to flow xwyz?
A: need to define link weights so traffic routing algorithm
computes routes accordingly (or need a new routing algorithm)!

Link weights are only control “knobs”: wrong!

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-83
Traffic engineering: difficult
5
3
2 v w 5

u 2
3
1 z
1
2
x 1 y

Q: what if network operator wants to split u-to-z

traffic along uvwz and uxyz (load balancing)?
A: can’t do it (or need a new routing algorithm)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-84

 Networking 401
Traffic engineering: difficult
5
3
v
v
w
w
2 5

zz
u 2 1
3
1
2
xx yy
1

Q: what if w wants to route blue and red traffic

differently?

A: can’t do it (with destination based forwarding, and LS,

DV routing)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-85

 Software defined networking (SDN)
4. programmable 3. control plane
control routing
access
control … load
balance functions
applications external to data-
plane switches
Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA 2. control,
data plane
CA CA CA CA separation

1: generalized“ flow-
based” forwarding
(e.g., OpenFlow)
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-86
 SDN perspective: data plane switches
Data plane switches network-control
applications
fast, simple, commodity switches
routing
…
implementing generalized data-
plane forwarding in hardware access load
control balance
switch flow table computed,
control
installed by controller northbound API plane
API for table-based switch control
(e.g., OpenFlow) SDN Controller
 defines what is controllable and (network operating system)
what is not
protocol for communicating with southbound API
controller (e.g., OpenFlow)
data
plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-87
 SDN perspective: SDN controller
SDN controller (network network-control
OS): applications
…
routing
maintain network state
access load
information control balance
interacts with network control control
applications “above” via northbound API plane
northbound API
interacts with network switches SDN Controller
“below” via southbound API (network operating system)

implemented as distributed
southbound API
system for performance,
scalability, fault-tolerance,
robustness data
plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-88
 SDN perspective: control applications
network-control apps: network-control
applications
“brains” of control: implement
routing
…
control functions using lower-
level services, API provided by access load
control balance
SND controller
unbundled: can be provided by northbound API
control
plane
3rd party: distinct from routing
vendor, or SDN controller SDN Controller
(network operating system)

southbound API

data
plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-89
OpenFlow protocol
 operates between
OpenFlow Controller controller, switch
 TCP used to exchange
messages
 optional encryption
 three classes of
OpenFlow messages:
 controller-to-switch
 asynchronous (switch
to controller)
 symmetric (misc)

Network Layer: Control Plane 5-90

SDN: control/data plane interaction example
Dijkstra’s link-state 1 S1, experiencing link failure
Routing using OpenFlow port status
message to notify controller
4 5
network
graph
RESTful
API
… intent 2 SDN controller receives
OpenFlow message, updates
statistics
3
… flow tables
link status info
3 Dijkstra’s routing algorithm
Link-state info host info … switch info application has previously
2 registered to be called when
OpenFlow … SNMP
ever link status changes. It is
called.
4 Dijkstra’s routing algorithm
6 access network graph info,
1
link state info in controller,
s2 computes new routes
s1
s4
s3
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-91
SDN: control/data plane interaction example
Dijkstra’s link-state
Routing

4 5
network
graph
RESTful
API
… intent 5 link state routing app interacts
with flow-table-computation
statistics
3
… flow tables
component in SDN controller,
which computes new flow
Link-state info host info … switch info
tables needed

2 6 Controller uses OpenFlow to

OpenFlow … SNMP
install new tables in switches
that need updating

6
1

s2
s1
s4
s3
Network Layer: Control Plane 5-92