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20 Dss
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Major
Manufacturing
Processes
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Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
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Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Sheet Metalworking
Deep Drawing
Y f K n
Flow Stress
Y f K n
_ K n
Yf
1 n
_
where Y f = average flow stress; and = maximum
strain during deformation process. n = strain
hardening exponent
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1. Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly above
Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
Minimum or no machining usually required
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Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu?
Copper
Cold
Work
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm
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Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?
60
700 800
ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
600 60
tensile strength
ductility (%EL)
50 1. Recovery
500
40 2. Recrystallization
3. Grain Growth
400 30
ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch
4e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
co c ry a in
ve sta Gr American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
ry lliz ow
ati th
on
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Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
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Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
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Anisotropy in y
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt,
G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties
of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)
rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.
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Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
TR
º
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Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm
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2. Warm Working
Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
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3. Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of
melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level
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