Language Programs and

Policies in Multilingual
Societies
Language in Education Policy
Model of Language Policy

(Spolsky, 2004)
...language policy has three “interrelated, but interdependent”
components: language practice, language beliefs, and language
management
Language practices are the “observable behaviors and choice ꟷ what
people actually do,” which included the choice of linguistic feature and
of the language variety.

Language beliefs are “the values assigned to the varieties and features”

Language management is “the explicit and observable effort by

someone or some group that has claims to have authority over the
participants on the domain to modify their practices or beliefs”
 UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE-IN-EDUCATION
POLICY
1. How would you describe the language diversity of your class based on
the chart?

2. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of a

linguistically diverse or a multilingual class?

3. What do you think are the main challenges in dealing with a

multilingual class?

4. What do teachers do to overcome them?

Linguistic diversity naturally results to a long list of problems in the
classroom. Vital questions, like “in what language will the instruction be
delivered?’’

Language-in-education policies are created to proactively address

these problems. Kosonen and Young (2009) define language-in-
education policy (LEP) as the “legislation on and practices pertaining to
languages or media of instruction and languages of literacy used in basic
education”
LEP’s primary concern is to decide on the medium of instruction that
will be used in schools. Specifically, LEP addresses these issues:

1. What language/s should be used in school?

2. When do we start teaching these languages to children?
3. How long these languages should be taught? How many years? How
many hours?
4. Who are qualified to teach? Who should learn these languages? How
will it be taught? (Shohamy, 2006, p. 76)
LANGUAGE-IN-EDUCATION POLICIES IN
THE PHILIPPINES THROUGH THE YEARS
SpanishOccupation
AmericanOccupation
JapaneseOccupation
Present-Day
Revised Educational Act 1901
“US President Mckinley directs the Philippine Commission to establish a
system of schools where English is ‘the basis of all public school
instruction,’ the establishment of which is deemed ‘essential to the
success of democracy’ (Dawe 2014, p. 66).’’
In 1940, Executive Order No. 263
“The 1935 Constitution adopts Tagalog as the national language in
1937. Executive Order No. 263 stiplulated the teaching of Tagalog as a
separate subject in primary, secondary, and teachers’ colleges, in both
public and private schools.”
Revised Educational Act 1957
“The Board of National Education provides for theuse of vernacular
languages as medium of instruction (MOI) in Grades 1 and 2, and
auxiliary MOI in Grades 3 and 4. English is introduced as a separate
subject and MOi from Grade 3 onwards. Tagalog or ‘Pilipino’ (adopted
in 1959) becomes an auxiliary MOI in Grades 5 and 6
DEC Department Order No. 9 (Bilingual Education
Policy) 1987
“The Department of Education (DEC) adopts the Bilingual Education
Policy (BEP) at all levels of schooling to develop bilingual competence in
the use of both languages as subject areas and as MOI. Regional
languages are used as auxiliary languages in Grades 1 and 2.”
DECS Order No. 52 1987
’The Department of Education, Culture, and Sports (DECS) reiterate
provisions in the BEP: and Mathematics, and Pilipino (spelled ‘Filipino’
after 1987) as MOI in Filipino, Social Studies, Character,Health, Work,
and Physical Education at all levels of education. Regional languages
remain auxiliary MOI
Deped DO No. 74 (Multilingual Education
Policy) 2009
“The Department of Education (Deped) institutionalizes the child’s MT
as primary MOI in all subject areas, ‘from pre-school until, at elast,
grade three,’ followed by Filipino and English, introduced as separate
subjects ‘no earlier than Grade two.’ The teaching of MT as subject
(MTS) begins in Grade One. Filipino and English become the MOi from
the secondary level onwards.”
LANGUAGE-IN-EDUCATION POLICIES
IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
Can you guess the language/s used in these countries?
 Brunei
Darussalam
• Brunei Darussalam is the smallest
Southeast Asian nation in terms of
population.
• It is ethnically and linguistically diverse.
• The majority of the population belongs
to various Malay groups, speaking
several Malay languages.
• It is estimated that seventeen
languages are spoken in Brunei,
though this figure does not include all
the languages of temporary migrant
laborers
• Standard Malay, as used in Peninsular
Malaysia, is the official language
according to the Constitution of 1959.
• The use of Standard Malay is restricted
to formal situations like government,
business, and education, and is not
generally current in daily
communication.
• The education system uses Standard
Malay and English as the media of
instruction, according to a language
policy emphasising bilingualism in those
languages.
• Standard Malay is used more at the pre-primary level and in the early grades
of primary education. English is a more prominent medium at higher levels of
learning (Kaplan & Baldauf, 2003; Leclerc, 2009; Leong & Sim, 2004).
 Cambodia
• In Cambodia, where twenty-two
languages are spoken
• the Khmer are the largest
ethnolinguistic group,
comprising approximately 90
percent of the population.
• This makes Cambodia one of the
linguistically least diverse
nations in Asia.
• The Constitution of 1993
establishes Khmer as the official
language.
• Until the late 1990s, the medium of
instruction at all levels of education was
in Khmer, though some schools had also
been teaching Chinese and Vietnamese as
subjects

• Until late 2007, there was no explicit policy

support in Cambodia for the use of non-
dominant languages in education.

• The Education Law approved in 2007 gives

authorities the right to choose the
language(s) of instruction, by issuing
special sub-decrees or decisions in areas
where Khmer Lue languagesare spoken.
 Indonesia
• Indonesia, with more than 740
languages, is linguistically the most
diverse country in all of Asia. It is second
globally after Papua New Guinea, where some
850 languages are spoken
• The official and national language –
according to the 1945 Constitution – is
Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia).
• Indonesian is also the language of
instruction at all levels of education
• Only an estimated 15 percent of the
population can speak Indonesian as
their mother tongue.
• A large proportion of Indonesians speak
Indonesian as a second language with
varying levels of proficiency.
• The Indonesian Constitution of 1945
guarantees the use and development of
non-dominant languages and encourages
people to use, develop, and preserve their
local languages.
• Law No. 20 of 2003 (Chapter VII, Article
33, Section 2) states that a mother tongue
other than Indonesian can be used as the
language of instruction in the early stages
of education, if needed in the delivery of
particular knowledge and/or skills.
 Lao PDR
• In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao
PDR or Laos), the estimated number of
languages spoken is eighty-six.
• According to the Constitution of 1991, Lao is
the official language, and the Lao script is the
official script.
• Lao is the dominant language in the country,
with more than 3 million first language
speakers.
• In Laos, there are no explicit policies
relating to the use of non-dominant
languages in education.
• The Constitution and other policy
documents, however, stipulate that ‘ethnic
groups’ and ‘ethnic group areas’ ought to
receive special government attention.
• The Education Law of 2000 stipulates the
use of Lao in education, and can be
interpreted to allow the use of Lao only.
• No non-dominant languages are currently
used in education, though some small pilot
projects are being planned.
Malaysia
• It is estimated that about 140 languages are spoken in Malaysia. The
Malays,
• The dominant ethnolinguistic group, make up about the half of the
total population.
• The Constitution of 1957 establishes Standard Malay (Bahasa
Malaysia or Bahasa Melayu) as the official and national language.
• The Constitution also guarantees people’s freedom to use, teach, and
learn any language, as well as the preservation and maintenance of
non-dominant languages
The government system of formal education has two
kinds of schools:
1) national primary schools
2) national-type primary schools.

The national primary schools use Standard Malay as

the main language of instruction,
whereasmathematics and science are taught in
English.

The national-type primary schools use some other

language, such as Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, or an
alternative Indian language, as the main medium of
instruction, and mathematics and science are taught
in that language and English
Myanmar
Over 100 languages are spoken in the Union of Myanmar, although some
estimates indicate that the actual number may be closer to 200.
Currently, the main language of instruction in the government system of
education is Myanmar (Burmese), which is the official language according
to the 2008 Constitution.
Until the late 1980s, however, in many states with sizable minority
populations, large numbers of people received basic education in the most
dominant regional language.
Mother tongue-based education was provided on the basis of the 1974
Constitution, which affirmed the right of minority nationalities to be
taught their languages along with Burmese
• It is estimated that some 30 percent of children do not speak
Myanmar when entering the education system.
• The national Education for 30 All Action Plan recommends special
strategies to teach the national language to minority children at the
pre-primary level.
• In Myanmar, non-dominant languages are mostly used in nonformal
education by civil society organizations and language communities,
particularly in the northern states inhabited predominantly by
ethnolinguistic minorities
The Philippines
In terms of language diversity, the Philippines is second only to
Indonesia in Southeast Asia, as 180 languages are estimated to be
spoken in the country.
Languages such as Bicol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, and Tagalog are
spoken by millions of people and widely used as languages of wider
communication in their respective areas.
According to the 1987 Constitution, the national language is Filipino
(based on Tagalog), and Filipino and English are the official languages.
 The BilingualEducation Policy of 1974, revised in 1987, states that
English and Filipino are the languages of education and the official
languages of literacy.
The Constitution also gives regional languages a status as auxiliary
languages in their respective areas
Regional and local languages have been used in government schools as
“transitional languages” for initial instruction and early literacy up to
primary
Singapore
• Around thirty languages are believed to be spoken in Singapore.
• Three quarters of the population are ethnic Chinese speaking many
different varieties of Chinese.
• Singapore is a nation aiming at societal multilingualism and
bilingualism among its population.
• the Constitution of 1965 stipulates four official languages: Malay,
Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, and English
The Constitution guarantees the use, teaching, and learning of other
languages, and also supports the maintenance of Singaporean non-
dominant languages.
English is the main language of instruction at all levels of education,
though some subjects are taught through one of the official “mother
tongue languages”
Thailand
• Standard Thai, which is based on Central Thai as spoken in the capital,
Bangkok, is the de facto official and national language of Thailand.
• An estimated 50% of Thai citizens speak Standard or Central Thai as
their first language.
• The Thai Constitution of 1997, along with the more open Thai society
since the early 1990s, has provided new opportunities for
ethnolinguistic minorities to use their languages.
• Currently, Thailand does not have a written language policy, and
education laws do not touch upon the issue of language of instruction.
As a result, there are no prohibitions in using NDLs in education
Timor Leste
• Timor Leste is the newest member of SEAMEO.
• An estimated nineteen languages are spoken in the country
• According to the Constitution of 2002, Tetum and Portuguese are the
official languages, and English and Indonesian have the status of
working languages as long as their use is considered necessary.
• The language-of-education situation in Timor Leste has been in a
constant flux ever since Independence in 1999.
• A new language-in-education policy was adopted in October 2008
(Basic Law on Education), making both Portuguese and Tetum
languages of instruction.
• As the majority of active and qualified teachers in Timor Leste were
educated when Timor Leste was still part of Indonesia, teaching in
Tetum and Portuguese remains a challenge, despite teacher training
programmes.
• Timor Leste is still facing great challenges in terms of access to and
quality of education.
Vietnam
• The Socialist Republic of Vietnam officially recognises fifty-four ethnic
groups.
• According to unofficial estimates and linguistic surveys, approximately 100
languages are spoken.
• The national and official language is Vietnamese, and it functions as the
language of wider communication around the country.
• The use of non-dominant languages in society and education is strongly
supported by various policy documents as well as in the 1992 Constitution
and the Education Law of 2005
• Yet the Education Law declares that Vietnamese is the official language in
education.
• A recently launched pilot programme developed by the Ministry of
Education and Training (MoET), with UNICEF’s assistance, has adopted
a fully bilingual approach, based on the learners’ first language
• This programme uses L1 literacy as a basis for learning additional
languages and academic content