SYNTAX

S5 2023
 Syntax?

SYNTAX: What is it ?

Structure and grouping of words into sentences.

Syntax shapes sentences and gives them structure.

Study of rules governing sentence structure.

In its broader meaning , it is the study of syntactic knowledge

(Competence).
Syntax= Grammar (+Phonology+Morphology+Semantics)

Grammar= Theory of Language

 Syntactic Competence1

 Humans understand and produce an infinite number of sentences of

their native language.
 These sentences could be totally and never heard before.

 Sparrows tango on the trees ! GRAMMATICALITY

 Humans understand and produce long sentences.

RECURSIVENESS
 Example: John told me about the problem that you faced when you
went to the hotel that has large meeting rooms in which you hold
conferences that deal with the country's political problems that
people are fed up with and intend to……
 Syntactic Competence2

Grammar determines grammatical relations.

Bill killed John. ( 3 CONSTITUENTS )

*John killed.
This sentence is ungrammatical as not all grammatical
relations are satisfied.
What is a constituent?
 Constituent

A constituent is a group of words dominated by one

node that dominates those words and no other
words.
Words combine to create phrases.
Phrases are strings of words that behave the same way
linguistically.
Phrases form sentences.
[The [children]]= Noun Phrase
[[drink] milk]]=Verb Phrase
[[The] [children] [drink] [milk]]= Seentence
 Constituency Test1

How is a constituent a constituent?

Substitution Test:
The children drink milk.
They
do.
The children drink milk with appetite.
eagerly.
Only constituents can be substitued.
 Constituency Test2

Coordination Test
Ali met [his father] and [his mother].
Only constituents of the same syntactic category can be
coordinated.
 History1

The two major shifts ( some would boldly use the

word 'revolution' ) in modern linguistics are
undoubtedly those by :
1.Ferdinand de Saussure at the turn of the twentieth
century . Linguistics is an independent discipline.
2. Noam Chomsky as of the mid-fifties of the same
century.
 History2

The Generative revolution is perhaps the most

dominating approach to language in all times.
Ferdinand de Saussure: Language is a system to be
studied like any other (physical) phenomenon ;
language is a social phenomenon.
Chomsky: Language is a psychological phenomenon;
studying language is part of studying human
cognition.
 History3

The Philosophical Underpinnings/Background

Rationalism ; Cartesian linguistics -> Port Royal ( 1596-
1650); René Descartes (1596–1650); Wilhem von
Humboldt( 1767-1835).
Chomsky's assumption / hypothesis : Innateness.
The human brain / mind is equipped / endowed with
abstract linguistic structures ready to be used.
Language is a feature that distinguishes humans
from other creatures.
 History4

The human mind/brain is a unique organ that is

structured in a unique way that enables humans to
behave in a way that no other creature does.
Descartes : " I think; therefore I am."
Abstract thinking is what differentiates human
beings from other creatures.
Language is a human attribute.
Humans use language not because of their speech
apparatus (that animal might have too) but because
of the nature / structure of their brain.
 History5

 Port Royal: Grammaire Générale et Raisonnée. Language is

the logical manifestation of the human brain / mind. Even
though human languages look different at the surface, they
share the rational properties that humans share.
 Languages vary, but they share universals that reflect how
the human / brain operates.
 Linguistic categories reflect thought.
 Wilhem von Humboldt: Linguistic creativity. Limited rules
can generate unlimited utterances.
 Language is both 'inner' form and 'outer' form. (Chomsky's
'deep' and 'surface' structure.)
 Chomsky1

Chomsky's rational approach to languge is very

much impacted by Cartesian linguistics.
Language is acquired because of the unique nature /
structure of the human mind / brain.
AGAINST : Behaviourism ; language is empiricist.
 Chomsky2

Chomsky’s Generative Grammar (GG) is an

approach / theory to language that relies on the
concepts and procedures of scientific analysis.
The phenomena of language are studied in a
rigorously scientific method that is subject to :
1.Definition and limitation of subject-matter;
2.Use of specified approach and methodology;
3.Assumption of basic concepts and theory.
 Chomsky3

Theory of language (Grammar) is assumed to be

formal , clear, simple and general.
Theory should have explanatory value.
Theory should be strong and neat.
In Generative Grammar, theory is substituted for
Grammar.
Grammar is defined as a theory of language. The
purpose of linguistics is to build grammar(s) that
seek to describe and explain the phenomenon of
language acquisition.
 Grammar1

Grammar can :
1.identify the sentences of a language;
2.is a system that assigns structural description to
sentences;
3.is input and output;
4.reflects a native speaker's competence.
 Grammar2

Grammar should display:

1.strong generative capacity;
2.limited set of rules that generate an unlimited set
of grammatical utterances;
3.mechanisms that block ungrammatical utterances.
 Grammar3

Grammar should observe the three levels of

ADEQUACY:
1.Observational ; language;
2.Descriptive; -language
3.Exlpanatory. -language acquisition ( LAD).
 Suggested Reading

Next class: Syntactic analysis.