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ECONOMICS
ELEVENTH EDITION
price rationing The process by which the market system allocates goods and
services to consumers when quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied.
Under normal circumstances, we would expect that most markets are more or
less in equilibrium. To predict which prices rose post Hurricane Sandy, all we
need to do is look at those businesses facing large shifts in either their demand
or supply curves after the storm.
With many people forced out of their homes, hotel rooms became scarce. The
hotel industry saw a large outward shift of the demand curve in its market.
Unable to quickly increase output levels, higher prices and price gouging were
now possible.
Complaints of price gouging were not only lodged against hotel businesses.
You should be able to see how economics can help us predict what kinds of
businesses are likely to be charged with the offense.
THINKING PRACTICALLY
THINKING PRACTICALLY
1.Why might we see a greater demand for festivals in poor countries than in rich ones?
1.Why might we see a greater demand for festivals in poor countries than in rich ones?
How might this be affected by choices available?
How might this be affected by choices available?
2. Very often such attempts distribute costs and benefits among households in
unintended ways.
price ceiling A maximum price that sellers may charge for a good, usually set
by government.
favored customers Those who receive special treatment from dealers during
situations of excess demand.
Price changes resulting from shifts of demand in output markets cause profits
to rise or fall. Profits attract capital; losses lead to disinvestment.
Higher wages attract labor and encourage workers to acquire skills.
At the core of the system, supply, demand, and prices in input and output
markets determine the allocation of resources and the ultimate combinations
of goods and services produced.
THINKING PRACTICALLY
THINKING PRACTICALLY
1.Many museums offer free admission one day a week, on a weekday. We observe that
1.Many museums offer free admission one day a week, on a weekday. We observe that
museum goers are more likely to be senior citizens on that day than on a typical
museum goers are more likely to be senior citizens on that day than on a typical
Saturday.
Saturday.
Why?
Why?
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Supply and Demand Analysis: An Oil Import Fee
FIGURE 4.5 The U.S. Market for Crude Oil, 2012
Consumer Surplus
As illustrated in panel (a), some consumers (see point A) are willing to pay as much as $5.00 each for
hamburgers.
Since the market price is just $2.50, they receive a consumer surplus of $2.50 for each hamburger that
they consume.
Others (see point B) are willing to pay something less than $5.00 and receive a slightly smaller surplus.
Since the market price of hamburgers is just $2.50, the area of the shaded triangle in panel (b) is equal
to total consumer surplus.
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Producer Surplus
producer surplus The difference between the current market price and the
cost of production for the firm.
Panel (a) shows the consequences of producing 4 million hamburgers per month instead of 7 million
hamburgers per month.
Total producer and consumer surplus is reduced by the area of triangle ABC shaded in yellow.
This is called the deadweight loss from underproduction.
Panel (b) shows the consequences of producing 10 million hamburgers per month instead of 7 million
hamburgers per month.
As production increases from 7 million to 10 million hamburgers, the full cost of production rises
above consumers’ willingness to pay, resulting in a deadweight loss equal to the area of triangle ABC.
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Potential Causes of Deadweight Loss from Under- and Overproduction
When supply and demand interact freely, competitive markets produce what
people want at the least cost, that is, they are efficient.
We have now examined the basic forces of supply and demand and discussed
the market/price system. These fundamental concepts will serve as building
blocks for what comes next.
price ceiling