LEARNING

THEORIES
GGGE6563: STRATEGI PENGAJARAN
Learning?
Human learning is
effortless if the
instruction is aligned
with how human
learn.
Human learning is
effortless if the
Humans are naturally
material to be learned
inclined to learn.
is interesting/
relevant
Learning is
something humans
do from the moment
of birth to their last
any process that in days.
living organisms
leads to permanent Human learning is
capacity change and cyclical and not
which is not solely linear (Johnson,
due to biological 2019).
maturation or ageing
(Illeris 2007, p. 3).

OUTCOMES:
1. Something that is
acquired by efforts
2. Acquisition of
something
LEARNING:
1. behavioral changes-
knowledge,
understanding, attitudes
and skills
2. knowledge (cognitive),
skills (psychomotor) and
those related to values ​
and attitudes (affective).

Learning outcomes can serve as a benchmark to measure a success of a university.

Learning outcomes as ‘being something that student can do now that they could
not do previously’ are changes in people as a result of a learning experience
(Watson 2002).

encompass a wide range of student attributes and abilities, both cognitive

and affective, which are a measure of how their experiences have
supported their development as individuals (Bloom 1977).
What does learning mean to you?
schools need to develop
ways to link classroom
learning to other aspects
of students’ lives.
What’s best to enhance learning?
■ Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works. If
their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts
and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert
to their preconceptions outside the classroom.
■ To develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must: (a) have a deep foundation
of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual
framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application.
■ A “metacognitive” approach to instruction can help students learn to take control of
their own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in
achieving them. - predict outcomes, explain to oneself in order to improve
understanding

(Brandsford, Brown & Cocking, 2004)

So, what’s theory?

“First, theory supposes that one can express propositionally one’s understanding of that which
is to be researched into. Second, those propositions are expressed in such a way that they can
be hypothesized and put to the test against experience. Third, the interpretation of those tests
and that experience can be examined critically by others in the light of the data. Fourth,
although it is desirable to make one’s theories as all embracing as possible, it is often necessary
to be satisfied with small-scale and rather tentative and provisional theoretical positions. Fifth,
therefore, the growth of knowledge lies in the constant formulation of the assumptions and
beliefs and in the criticism of these in the light of evidence or their implications”

Thomas, G. (2007). Education and Theory : Strangers in Paradigms. McGraw-Hill Education.

■ the group of predications that brings forward proposals in order
to find the reasons why events take place. In a sense, theory is a
plan that helps to realize some certain ideas in line with
previously designed plans. At the same time, theory is a path that
is taken as a basis to move and that is followed accordingly.
(Kaya, 2016).
■ A way to explain a set of facts – connecting data dots (Johnson,
p.3, 2019)
– Accepted theories connect a wide array of data dots
– These theories have been confirmed through a variety of
different types of research studies & observations
conducted over time.
 Neurological
LT

Learning
Humanistic theories Behavioural
LT LT
(LTs)

Cognitive LT
BEHAVIOU
RAL
LEARNING
THEORIES
Behavioural view of learning (Ivan Pavlov)

Learning as a relatively permanent change in

behaviour/ behavioural pptentiality that occurs as a
result of experience (Hergenhahn & Olsen, 2005).

Is based on the principle of stimulus and response.

Is rooted in the late 19th century studies - how people

behave and the emergence of the discipline of
psychology
Ivan Pavlov
■ Presented a dog with an
unconditioned stimulus (food)
would provoke an
unconditioned response
(salivating)
■ Alter: food + bell =salivate
■ Remove the food, bell =
salivate
Situation

When Karen sat for her numeracy test, she started to panic
and fled the room in tears. When the teacher asked her what
happened she explained that her mind had gone a complete
blank and she was unable to focus on the questions. When
the teacher went through the questions with Karen face-to-
face, it was clear she knew the answers and her excellent
results in other tests demonstrated she was not afraid of
exams, but she clearly have a phobia of numeracy tests.
Deal with someone’s fear of a subject by
removing their negative responses to the subject.

■ Getting them to examine the root cause of their negative feelings towards the subject
■ Making them aware of the relevance of the subject
■ Taking out the menace about failing tests by giving some easy tasks where the
individual can achieve a few successes
■ Building up the intensity of the task gradually
■ Making sure that you are generous in your praise when they complete a task
Operant conditioning (BF Skinner)
Positive reinforcement
Rat will associate
Rewarded with
Rat presses lever lever with food
food
and repeat process

Negative reinforcement

Rat will associate

Rat stands on Punished with
grid with pain &
electric grid electric shock
avoid process
■ Positive reinforcement: good behavior can be encouraged by offering
rewards
■ Negative reinforcement: the like hood of poor behavior can be
discouraged through pairing it with an unpleasant consequence.

In classroom:
■ Only offer rewards for good behavior
■ Only threaten punishment for bad behavior
■ Positive reinforcement has a lasting effect than negative reinforcement
(Bates, 2019).
COGNITIVE
LEARNING
THEORIES
 Based on the principle that Basic understanding…
information is actively
processed inside the mind

Behaviour modification takes

place by searching for the
relationships thatexist
between the various bits of
information

Learning is a process of
gathering all of the relevant
pieces ofinformation together
until they begin to form a
complete picture

Grew from dissatifcation with

the behavioural approach –
behavioural outcomes over
developing potentials.
Piaget’s Learning Theory

■ people construct knowledge as opposed to receiving it

■ Proposed four stages of development:
– Sensorimotor: learning takes place through touch & feel
– Pre-operational: ability to arrange objects logically strats to develop
– Concrete operational: ability to think logically about objects and events starts
become more structured
– Formal operational: abstract thinking & verbal reasoning starts to develop
Schema

child develops a mental pattern to understand his or can use other templates or patterns, adapt it and use
her world it in conjunction with his or her own schema that
was constructed using their own experiences
Adaptation processes

He called these:
These allow the
Equilibrium,
transition from one
Assimilation and
stage to another.
Accommodation.
When the child uses the schema to deal with a
new thing or situation, that Schema is
in Assimilation

Accommodation happens when the existing

Schema isn’t up to the job of explaining what’s
going on and needs to be changed.
What’s your opinion?

Mr.Harvey is using football as a way of getting young people with behavioural issues to
engage in the learning process. He organized a six-a-side competition in which the winning
team has a penalty shoot-out against each other, with a prize for the individual winner.
Danny, one of the players, suffered with Asperger’s Syndrome. His cognitive development
was below that of his peers and he had difficulty in socializing with others. He was very
passionate about football. Mr Harvey put him in a team with some real hard knocks. His
team won the six-a-side competition and, as they lined up for the penalty shoot-out, the
hardest of the hard knocks whispered to Mr Harvey that they’d rigged it for Danny to win.
The sheer joy on Danny’s face when he scored the winning penalty and the emotion of his
mother telling Mr Harvey he'd never had friends who did that for him before is something
Mr Harvey will never forget.
How to apply Piaget’s theory:

■ Remember, people react differently to learning may not be as a result of their age, but at
what stage they are at in their cognitive development
■ some learners will flourish in group-working whereas others may need more one-to-one
support. So, balance your time so that you can cater all of your students’ needs
■ Encourage students to learn form each other and emphasize that everyone will have
something to offer in the respect
■ Convince them that failing at something doesn’t make them a loser! Important part is
what they learn from the experience
■ Acknowledge efforts as well as achievements
Vygotsky’s Learning Theory

■ Thinking develop from outside in

■ They internalize as they interact with others
■ We learn from other people – MKOs (More
Knowledgeable Others)
■ Scaffolding:
– Build interest & engage with people
– Break a task into smaller sub-tasks
– Use MKOs to support people
– Model possible ways of completing task which
they can imitate then eventually internalize
Critical perspective. I want to hear it
from you!
Vygotsky placed a lot of importance on the roles of
community and culture in the learning process.
What do you think about his critics who argue
that the theory does not recognize that
individuals can rise above social norms based
on their ability to bring about personal
understanding?
Bloom’s taxonomy: theoretical
framework for learning
(Cognitive)

■ Each level can be used to design questions, activities

& assignments that actively engage students during &
after the lessons.
■ Level 1-2 have fairly low levels of cognitive
engagement.
■ Level 3 and above generally have higher levels of
cognitive engagement.
AFFECTIVE
DOMAIN

The affective domain (sometimes referred to as

the feeling domain) is concerned with
feelings and emotions and also divides
objectives into hierarchical subcategories. It
was proposed by Krathwohl and Bloom in
1964.

The affective domain is not usually used when

planning for maths and sciences as feelings
and emotion are not relevant for those
subjects. However, for educators of arts and
language, the inclusion of the affective
domain is imperative wherever possible.
Source: https://teacherofsci.com/learning-theories-in-
education/#3_Blooms_Domains_of_Learning
 PSYCHOMOTOR
DOMAIN

•Psychomotor learning refers to how

we use our bodies and senses to
interact with the world around us, such
as learning how to move our bodies in
dance or gymnastics.
Bloom’s digital
taxonomy
(Andrew
Churches)
SOURCE:
https://teachonline.asu.edu/2016/05/i
ntegrating-technology-blooms-
taxonomy/
HUMANIS
TIC
LEARNING
THEORIES
■ Humanistic LT recognize that humans have a natural tendency to evolve, grow, learn &
develop fully (Johnson, p.107,2019)

instinctive Self-
inner core actualization:
that moves human’s
people innate,
Rogers (1969) toward natural Maslow (1968)
reaching their progression
full potential toward their
higher state
Humanistic learning seems to share 3
overriding tenets
Human are by their very nature evolving, self-
developing creatures – we have a natural
inclination to learn

Learning is enhanced when education experiences

alighn with these natural desires

The goal of education should be toenable each

person to develop his/her full potential
Does our education practice
“dehumanize” students?

Manipulation is applied to
Students are passive learners get students to learn and
behave in an acceptable way

Lack of focus on creativity,

imagination, curiousity, Quantification of learning
social nature and emotional achievements
dimensions
 Carl Rogers: facilitation
Teacher’s role: authority/expertise to
facilitate the process of individuals
arriving at their own solutions.
Being true to yourself & not
being afraid to express your

congruence feelings in an effort to

establish a rapport with others

Accepting others for what

they are in a non-critical & facilitation
non-judgemental manner
Being willing to consider
issues from the other person’s
respect empathy standpoint
A good facilitation should:
(Bates, 2019)
■ Start by setting the mood and climate for the session
■ Find out what others are expecting from the session
■ Have a range of learning resources avalaible
■ Act as a flexible resource to be utilized by learners
■ Find out what learners gained
■ Be receptive to criticism and never be afraid to accept your own limitations
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

self-fulfillment Reaching full potential

esteem Self-belief & satisfaction

(reputation, respect)

affiliation Sense of belonging (affection &

love)

psychological freedom from fear (certainty,

stability, organization)

physical Basic survival needs (food,

warmth, rest)

Source: Bates, 2019)

Supporting principles for Humanistic Learning
(Johnson,2019)

The full spectrum of

the human
experience should be
The subject matter to Schools should
included in the
Students’ learning belearned should be produce students Students learn best
educational
should be as self- relevant to the lives who want tolearn in a non-threatening
experience
directed as possible or personalinterests and now how to environment
(emotions, creativity,
of the students learn
relationships,
imaginations & real-
life problems)
What do you think?

Maslow claimed that people can’t be motivated to learn

unless they have an inner desire to do so. Do you agree
with this?
NEUROLOGIC
AL LEARNING
THEORIES
Brainstem: regulate our life
support systems; do not take
conscious thought.

Cerebellum: motor control;

to coordinate movements of
the muscles and skeleton.

Cerebrum: responsible for

higher cognitive functions -
thinking, reasoning,
imagination, decision
making and problem
solving.
 Associative Learning (Donald Hebb)
Baby hears footsteps Baby sees a face Baby feels hands picking him up
assemblies
(audio assembles) (visual assembles) (tactile assembles)

Baby connects hearing with seeing and feeling

(synapses) connections

Friendly face + warm touch = no Unfriendly face + cold touch = fear associations
fear of footsteps of footsteps
How to apply? (Bates, 2019)

■ Accept that people learn differently; some will have a greater capacity to organize the
knowledge and thus be able to make the associations easier than others.
■ Develop a strategy for dealing with different levels of learners in a class.
■ Use teaching resources/aids to support learning – develop meaningful connections, see
patterns and make sense of new data.
Multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner)
linguistic

logical-
existential
mathematical

naturalistic musical

Intelligence

bodily-
intrapersonal
kinaesthetic

interpersonal visual-spatial
 According to Gardner…
■ Human beings have several types of intelligence that form the potential to process
information in a range of different context
■ An individual’s capacity in a particular intelligence will have a direct bearing on the
way they learn.

Therefore….
■ Be aware that students have different strengths and will react differently according to the nature of the
tasks set
■ Allow students the opportunity to tackle assignments in different ways
■ Consider taking students out their comfort zones and approach problems in ways that might not be
compatible with their preferred intelligences.
Multiple intelligences

■ Linguistic : the capacity to understand and use spoken & written language
■ Logical-mathematical : the capacity to analyze problems logically
■ Musical : the capacity to compose, perform & appreciate musical patterns
■ Bodily-kinaesthetic : the capacity to use & interpret expressive movements
■ Visual-spatial : the capacity to recognize patterns and dimensions
■ Interpersonal : the capacity to understand the intentions and desires of others
■ Intrapersonal : the capacity to one’s own feelings, fears and needs
■ Naturalistic : the capacity to recognize and categorize objects in nature
■ Existential : the capacity to tackle deep questions about meaning of life
CONSTRUCTIVE
ALIGNMENT
'If students are to learn desired outcomes in a
reasonably effective manner, then the teacher's
fundamental task is to get students to engage in
learning activities that are likely to result in their
achieving those outcomes... It is helpful to
remember that what the student does is actually
more important in determining what is learned than
what the teacher does.’
(Shuell, 1986: 429)
What is Constructive Alignment?

■ is a teaching principle that combines constructivism, the idea that learners construct or
create meaning out of learning activities and what they learn, and alignment, a
curriculum design concept that emphasizes the importance of defining and achieving
intended learning outcomes.
■ The goal is to support students in developing as much meaning and learning as possible
from a well designed, coherent, and aligned course.
■ Courses are congruent and cohere in an explicit way when there is good fit and flow
between a course’s intended learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities, and
assessments of student learning.
 John Biggs (2014):

■ Thoughtfully determining intentions for what students

should learn and how they will demonstrate their
achievement of these intended learning outcomes, and
clearly communicating these to students;
■ Designing teaching and learning activities so that
students are optimally engaged in achieving these
learning outcomes; and
■ Creating assessments that will allow students to
demonstrate their attainment of the learning outcomes
and allow instructors to discern how well these outcomes
have been achieved.

https://flexforward.pressbooks.com/chapter/constructive-alignment/
#:~:text=Constructive%20Alignment%20is%20a%20teaching,and
%20achieving%20intended%20learning%20outcomes.
 Matching individual performances
against the criteria is not a matter
of counting marks but of making
holistic judgments.
make sure the
assessment tasks
mirror the ILOs.
Arriving at a
final grade.
Assessing
students' actual
learning outcomes
to see how well
Choosing they match what
teaching/learning was intended
activities likely to
make clear what levels of lead to the ILOs

understanding we want from Defining the

intended
our students in what topics, learning
outcomes
and what performances of (ILOs)
understanding would give us
this knowledge.
Your turn:

■ Pick one subject that you teach

■ Identify the aim and objective of the lesson
Content/Topic ILO
https://www.bcit.ca/files/ltc/pdf/ja_learningoutcomes.pdf
Four common teaching situations and
associated TnL activities
SITUATION TEACHING ACTIVITIES
LECTURE Talk, explain, clarify
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Listen, take notes, query, discuss with
peers, one minute paper

TUTORIAL Set answer questions Pre-read, prepare questions, learn

Provide feedback from peers, critique
PROJECT Set brief Apply, create, self-monitor,
Provide ongoing feedback communicate, teamwork

PBL Set problems Set learning goal, design, apply,

Provide feedback access desired content and skills,
integrate, solve problems
Typical ILOs and possible TLAs

Typical ILO Possible TLAs

Describe Set reading, lecture, report on field trip, write essay

Explain Tutorials, activities, write essay

Integrate Project, assignment
Apply Project, case study
Solve problem PBL, case study
Design, create Project, poster
Hypothesise Experiment, project
Reflect Reflective diary
 The cone of
learning
■ Proposed by Edgar Dale
■ Some guiding questions:
– Where will the student’s
experience with this
instructional resource fit
on the cone?
– What kind of learning
experience do you want to
provide in the classroom?
– How does this instructional
resource augment the
information supplied by the
textbook?
– What and how many senses
can students use to learn
this instructional material?
– Does the instructional
material enhance
learning?
https://www.queensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules/active/documents/Dales_Cone_of_Experience_summary.pdf
Designing Assessment Tasks

■ AT should reflect the ILOs

■ Is used to help measure how far the ILOs have been achieved
■ Reflect the verbs used in the ILOs
■ Always ask yourself:
– Does the AT reflect your ILO?
– Do students need to complete the AT intended for the lesson?
– Is the intended AT too easy/hard for students?
Suggestion for AT
Let’s come back to your ILOs

■ Suggest learning activities that are suitable to help achieve the objectives
■ Suggest an assessment task that is suitable to help measure the lesson

ILOs TLAs AT
DESIGNING LO
Attributes of good LOs (George Doran, 1970)

Specific: the LO Measurable: Acceptable: Realistic: Timebound:

T
A
S

should be there should there should learners there should

clear and be some ways be consensus should be able be a time scale
unambiguous of tracking within the to achieve within which
progress class on what’s being the objectives
what’s to be asked of them will be
done achieved
Think about it

Kathy was a librarian at a university . She was frequently being asked to show students how
to use the library facilities. She started her teaching by stating: “By the end of this session,
you will be able to trace a book in the library in less than two minutes using the Dewey
Decimal Classification system”.
In your classroom…

■ Make sure you can describe, in a clear and unambiguous manner, what learners will be
able to do by the end of the session
■ Tell the learners how their progress will be monitored
■ Make sure the objectives are achievable
■ Attach a deadline for completion of each milestone
DELIVERING
LEARNING
John Hattie: visible learning
■ “When teaching is visible, the learners know what to do and how to do it” and “when learning is
visible, the teacher knows whether learning is happening or not”
■ He proposed 8 mind frames to help embrace visible learning, where teachers should:
– Accept that their fundamental task is to evaluate the effect of their teaching on learners
– Recognize that success or failure in learner achievements are about what they as teachers
did or did not do
– Talk more about the learning than the teaching
– See assessment as feedback about their impact
– Engage in dialogue, not just monologue
– Enjoy the challenge and never settle for just doing their best
– Believe that it is their role to develop positive relationships in the classroom and staffroom
– Inform all about the language of learning
John Carrol & Benjamin Bloom: Mastery
learning
■ Teachers should:
– Organize the subject matter to be taught into manageable learning units
– Develop specific learning objectives for each unit
– Introduce appropriate formative and summative assessment measures
– Allow sufficient time for learners to address errors and reach desired level of
mastery
As a teacher, you should….

■ Tell students what they will be able to do once they have mastered the subject matter
■ Allow them sufficient time to master the content of the lesson
■ Conduct frequent assessments to ensure they have mastered it
■ Don’t move to the next level till they have demonstrated mastery of the present level
■ Encourage the learners not to be fazed if they fail but to learn from their mistakes and
put things right
Gagne’s 9 levels of learning

enhance
retention
provide
feedback
Assess
performance
Elicit
performance
provide
guidance
present
content
Stimulate
prior learning
Set out
objectives
Gain attention
■ Grab attention: using interesting examples/stimuli
■ Set out objectives: tell students what they will able to do by the end of the lesson
■ Stimulate prior learning: test their prior knowledge/understanding
■ Present content: present the organized content of learning
■ Provide guidance: support students to remember the information by using examples and
other relevant techniques
■ Elicit performance: get students to demonstrate what they have understood
■ Assess performance: assess their performance of the lesson
■ Provide assessment: provide feedback for improvement
■ Enhance retention: get students to understand what they have learned and apply in
different context
EVALUATION OF
LEARNING
Jonathan Tummons: evaluation of
lifelong learning
■ What should be evaluated?
– Things that have an impact on performance: skills. Knowledge, mastery
■ How should we evaluate?
– Using techniques to gather data on the performance
■ Where and when should evaluation happen?
– Both within and across organization
■ Who should be involved in the process?
How to evaluate?

■ Instructor observation: Knowing the context of why a student acted in a particular way can provide more complete
understanding of behaviour.
■ Self-assessment: can shed light on the incidental, surprise, or unexpected learning that can occur beyond the intended goals and
objectives of a clinical course. E.g. “What surprised you when …?” or “Talk about what happened that you didn’t expect when
…”
■ Peer assessment: where individuals of similar status evaluate the performance of their peers and provide feedback, can also
help students develop a critical attitude towards their own and others’ practice (Mass et al., 2014)
■ Anecdotal notes: are the collections of information that instructors record, either by hand or electronically (Hall, 2013)
completed daily or weekly on all students and provide a snapshot of students’ range of clients and skills.
■ Classroom Assessment Techniques: documented problem solutions, directed paraphrasing, muddiest point (What was the
muddiest point in today’s lecture, the reading, the homework?).
■ Class assignments: What do you want students to learn in your course? What could they do that would show you that they
have learned it?
■ Exam: Should you assign essay questions on your exams? Problem sets? Multiple-choice questions? It depends on your
learning objectives.
THANK YOU
TEACHING
MODELS
GGGE6563: STRATEGI PENGAJARAN
 WHAT IS
TEACHIN
G MODEL?
“A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be
used to shape curriculums (long-term courses of
studies), to design instructional materials, and to guide
instruction in the classroom and other settings “
(Joyce & Weil, 1980)
What is teaching model?

Guideline to
A description arrangement
designing
of a learning of learning
instructional
environment environment
materials
 Help students
acquire
information, ideas,
Increase students’ Teaching
skills, values, ways
capabilities to learn influences students’
of thinking and
more easily and ability to educate
means of
efficiently themselves
expressing
themselves – as
part of learning
 Information
Teaching model
Processing
Behavioral
Direct Teaching strategies
Indirect
Teaching methodology
Lecture
Simulations inquiry
Case study Instructional Skills
Planning Evaluation
Cooperative Speech
Learning Instructional delivery Question
Interactive
Social Constructional Demonstation
Interaction study
Experiential Debate

Independent
Study
Personnal

Figure 1: Teaching frame that identify and show relationship between

teaching approaches accepted as parallel with good education practices. 81
how to translate teaching model for
teaching?
Model

Strategy

Method

Skills
Four families of teaching models
Collective energy for
learning; developing
cooperative relationships in
classroom
The social family

Behavioral Information
Capitalizing on knowledge systems -processing
about how people respond family family
to tasks and feedbacks
Ways of enhancing our
innate drive to make sense
of the world
Personal family

Individual perspectives on
self-awareness and
responsibilities
1. Information-
Processing Family
■ Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model
of Memory Storage (1971)
Gagne’s Information Processing Model

■ The sensory register picks up all the sensations or stimuli (smells, sounds,
etc.) reaching our receptors (body mechanisms to perform activities such
as smelling, tasting, etc.) from our environment. The capacity of sensory
memory is quite large, however sensory information only lasts for
milliseconds in the sensory register.

■ The short-term memory is seen as a temporary store (one to three seconds)

for a limited amount of information. If information is not attended to and
encoded so as to pass into long-term memory it decays. Long-term
memory holds information which, unlike in previous stores, does not
decay but seems to be permanent. There are three categories of long-term
memory:

■ Semantic Memory for verbal information or meaning. These memories are

stored as propositions, images, and schemata.

■ Episodic Memory for events and for information related to a particular

place and time

■ Procedural Memory for how to do things. It takes longer to learn a

procedure, but once learned, this knowledge tends to be remembered for a
long time.
2. Behavioral Systems Family
Direct Instruction (Engelmann &
Becker, 1977)

■ A teaching technique involves

the use of a teacher’s skill to
demonstrate @ perform a
certain activity in the class.
■ Teacher has a strong control
over what is learnt in the
classroom, provides feedback,
monitoring students, grading
work and strict classroom rules
& regulations. (Teacher-
cantered).

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationx92x1/chapter/direct-instruction/
Mastery Learning (Blooms, 1968)
Bloom observed that teachers' traditional practice was to organize curriculum
content into units and then check on students' progress at the end of each unit.
These checks on learning progress, he reasoned, would be much more valuable
if they were used as part of the teaching and learning process to provide
feedback on students' individual learning difficulties and then to prescribe
specific remediation activities.

Carry out remedial

Determine learning Teach pupils with effective activities for pupils who
Evaluate learning result by
outcomes by planning teaching method & have not fully mastered
diagnostic test &
explicit learning objective technique (use of suitable certain skills & provide
summative test (level of
(based on students’ learning materials to suit enrichment activities for
mastering & achievement)
performance). different learning styles) pupils who have mastered
the lesson.
Programmed Instruction Model (Skinner, 1920s)

• a method of presenting new subject matter to students through a graded sequence of controlled
steps with corresponding activities.

• Students work through the programmed material at their own speed independently and assess
their own comprehension after each step through exam questions or filling in a diagram. This
method consists of a network of tests and statements which direct the student accordingly
depending on their pattern of errors.

Specify a goal,
Develop a series
which means Identify the level Provide the
of steps to guide
decide on what of skills of the appropriate
learners where
needs to be learners reinforcement
they should be
learned
3. Personal Family
Non-directive teaching

Based on Carl Rogers’

Therefore instruction
work, he believes that
should be based on
positive human
concepts of human
relationships enable
relations
people to grow.
Phase 1: Defining the helping situation
Teacher encourages free expression of feelings
Phase 3: Developing insight
Student discusses problem.
Teacher supports student.
Phase 5: Integration
Student gains further insight & develops more
positive actions.
Teacher is supportive.
Phase 2: Exploring the problem
Student is encouraged to define problem.
Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings.
Phase 4: Planning & decision making
Student plans initial decision making.
Teacher clarifies possible decisions.
Action outside the interview
Student initiates positive actions,
4. Social Family
Role playing (Shaftel, 1970)
■ Emphasize the social nature of learning
■ stimulate students both socially and intellectually
■ Improves interpersonal skills and enhances communication

Preparation and
Student The discussion
explanation of the
preparation of the The role-playing after the role-
activity by the
activity playing activities
teacher
Group investigation (Thelan, 1960)

■ students are provided with opportunities to experience democratic decision making and
problem solving
■ this model also provides educators with an opportunity to integrate subject areas such as
science, language arts, and math with social studies.
How to implement? (as suggested by
Gallenstein)
■ either students or the instructor identifies a broad topic of concern
■ Students then brainstorm subtopics that would fall under the designated topic
■ the teacher might narrow down the list of possible topics to a manageable four or five and
invite students to vote on which topic most interests them
■ students meet in their learning teams and determine how their subtopic could be investigated
■ Students are encouraged to develop a set of questions that guide their study
■ The students then organize information into a written report
■ Each learning team shares its findings with the class in a creative format
■ class members evaluate each group’s presentation

http://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/publications/yl/1301/130106.html
For next class…

■ Read a chapter (pg 91-101 only). I’ve uploaded in UKM Folio under this week topic.
■ Decide which one do you want to present in groups of 4
– ATKINSON’S THEORY OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
– SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
– PERSON-ORIENTATED / HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
■ Present your findings (summary) in a mind map. Make it simple for us to understand!
THANK YOU