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Chapter 8
Chapter 8
Chapter 8
Proportional Control
Chapter 8
2
Although Eq. 8-1 indicates that the set point can be time-varying,
in many process control problems it is kept constant for long
periods of time.
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to
the error signal,
Chapter 8
p t p K c e t (8-2)
where:
p t controller output
p bias (steady-state) value
K c controller gain (usually dimensionless)
3
Chapter 8
4
The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:
100%
PB (8-3)
Kc
5
In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal proportional
controller (without saturation limits), define a deviation variable
p t as
p t p t p (8-4)
(8-5)
6
Integral Control
For integral control action, the controller output depends on the
integral of the error signal over time,
1 t
p t p 0 e t *dt * (8-7)
τI
Chapter 8
P s 1 τI s 1
K c 1 Kc (8-9)
E s τ s
I τ
I s
Chapter 8
Reset Windup
Derivative Control
Chapter 8
9
• Thus, for ideal derivative action,
de t
p t p τ D (8-10)
dt
where τ D , the derivative time, has units of time.
For example, an ideal PD controller has the transfer function:
Chapter 8
P s
K c 1 τ D s (8-11)
E s
P s τDs
K c 1 (8-12)
E s ατ D s 1
Chapter 8
11
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral,
and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
• Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
• Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Chapter 8
1 t de t
p t p K c e t 0 e t * dt * τ D dt (8-13)
τI
12
The corresponding transfer function is:
P s 1
K c 1 τDs (8-14)
E s τI s
P s τ I s 1 τ D s 1
Kc (8-15)
E s τ
I Ds ατ s 1
13
Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the
expanded form of PID control in Eq. 8-16 is sometimes used:
t de t
p t p K c e t K I e t * dt * K D (8-16)
0 dt
Chapter 8
14
• This sudden change is undesirable and can be avoided by basing
the derivative action on the measurement, ym, rather than on the
error signal, e.
• We illustrate the elimination of derivative kick by considering
the parallel form of PID control in Eq. 8-13.
Chapter 8
15
• For proportional control, when Kc > 0, the controller output p(t)
increases as its input signal ym(t) decreases, as can be seen by
combining Eqs. 8-2 and 8-1:
p t p K c ysp t ym t (8-22)
16
Figure 8.11 Reverse
Chapter 8
and direct-acting
proportional
controllers. (a) reverse
acting (Kc > 0. (b)
direct acting (Kc < 0)
17
• Example: Flow Control Loop
Chapter 8
Assume FT is direct-acting.
18
Automatic and Manual Control Modes
• Automatic Mode
Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller
constants, and type of controller used.
( PI vs. PID etc.)
Chapter 8
Manual Mode
Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
plant start-up
plant shut-down
emergencies
• Percentage of controllers "on manual” ??
(30% in 2001, Honeywell survey)
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Example: Liquid Level Control
• Control valves are air-to-open
• Level transmitters are direct acting
Chapter 8
• Simple
• Cheap
Chapter 8
21
On-Off Controllers (continued)
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
Chapter 8
22
Practical case (dead band)
Chapter 8
23
Chapter 8
24
Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
1
t
p ( t ) p K c e ( t ) e ( t ) dt
I 0
ysp
26
Some controllers are calibrated in 1/I
("repeats per minute") instead of I .
For PI controllers, p is not adjustable.
Chapter 8
27
PID Controller
Ideal controller
p( t ) p K c e( t ) e( t )dt D
I 0 dt
P(s) 1
K c 1 Ds
E(s) Is
Transfer function (actual)
P(s) Is 1 Ds 1
K c
E(s) Is Ds 1
α = small number (0.05 to 0.20) lead / lag units
28
Controller Comparison
change.
PI - More complicated to tune (Kc, I) .
- Better performance than P
- No offset
- Most popular FB controller
PID - Most complicated to tune (Kc, I, D) .
- Better performance than PI
- No offset
- Derivative action may be affected by noise
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Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
the disturbance variable)
Chapter 8
30
Figure 8.13.
Proportional control:
effect of controller
gain.
Chapter 8
31
Chapter 8
32
Position and Velocity Algorithms for Digital PID
Control
A straight forward way of deriving a digital version of the parallel
form of the PID controller (Eq. 8-13) is to replace the integral and
derivative terms by finite difference approximations,
Chapter 8
t k
0 e t * dt e j t (8-24)
j 1
de ek ek 1
(8-25)
dt t
where:
t = the sampling period (the time between successive
measurements of the controlled variable)
ek = error at the kth sampling instant for k = 1, 2, … 33
There are two alternative forms of the digital PID control
equation, the position form and the velocity form. Substituting (8-
24) and (8-25) into (8-13), gives the position form,
Chapter 8
t k D
pk p K c ek e j ek ek 1 (8-26)
1 j 1 t
t k D
pk p K c ek e j ek ek 1 (8-26)
1 j 1 t
Chapter 8
t D
pk pk pk 1 K c ek ek 1 ek ek 2ek 1 ek 2
I t
(8-28)
35
The velocity form has three advantages over the position form:
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