G E NE RA L PR IN C IP L ES OF

P H YS IO LO G Y
ROOM 13
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY,
COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES,
BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO OSUN STATE

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EMMANUEL, T.O
 LECTURE 1

CELL
STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS
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EMMANUEL, T.O
INTRODUCTION
The human body is made of billions of cells with various
specific functions
All cells in the human body share common features
All except RBC possess a membrane-limited nucleus
Human cells are effectively divided into two parts;
The nucleus
The Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is an aqueous solution containing organelles,
ions, molecules & cytoskeletal elements
The cell is the basic functional unit of any living organ

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THE HUMAN CELL

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 COMPONENTS OF HUMAN CELL
• The gel like matrix (Cytoplasm) of the human cell
contains organelles which performs specific functions;

CELL MEMBRANE
 The outer covering of the cell
 Made of proteins and lipids
 Contain 4 kinds of molecules; Phospholipids,
Carbohydrates, Proteins & Cholesterol
 Cell membrane is semisolid in structure
 Two basic functions
 Protection of the cell
 Regulating exchange ofEMMANUEL,
substances
T.O btw the cell & 5
Cytoplasm
 The filling fluid of the cell
 Also known as protoplasm
 All organelles floats freely in it
 Made of molecules & enzymes (sugars, fatty acids and
amino acids) necessary for normal cell function
 Waste products are dissolved in the fluid & excreted by
vacuoles
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Mitochondria
 Referred to as powerhouse of the cell
 Involved in the breakdown of nutrients to generate energy
(cellular respiration)
 Number varies from one cell to another (Zero – Thousands)
 Mitochondria have double membrane
 Outer one covers for protection
 Inner one folds to form multi-layered cristae
 Help the cells to maintain proper [Ca2+] & detoxify
ammonia (Liver)
 Important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death

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Nucleus
 Nucleus contains the genome of the cell
 Controls the processes of eating, reproduction & cell
movement
 Membrane-bound with pores for proteins & RNA
exchange
 Determines the physiology and anatomy of human body

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Golgi Bodies (Apparatus)
 Main task is to convert simple molecules to complex ones
 Also involved in building lysosomes for digestion of
nutrients
 GB contains secretory vesicle that empties the enzyme
outside the cell
 Appears like a stack of flattened membrane sacs
 GB stays close to ER
 Protein from rER form vesicles which are transferred to the
Golgi complex & absorbed via the Cis-Golgi network
 Sorting & packaging of the proteins take place in the trans-
golgi network
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Network of membranes which includes tubules and vesicles
 Acts as manufacturing and packaging unit of the cell
 There are two types of ER;
Rough ER (rER)
Smooth ER (sER)
 rER
Shaped like sheets or disks
Ribosomes are found attached to the surface
Protein molecules prepared & stored in the cisternal space
(vesicles)
Site of mRNA translation
 sER
Tube like structure
storehouse & synthesis of lipids and steroids
Lack ribosomes but contains lotsT.O of fats in it (Hence smooth)
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Lysosomes
 Serve a degradative function in the cells
 Membrane-bound
 Contain digestive enzymes; Proteases, nucleases, lipases
 They degrade organelles (autophagy) and products of
endocytosis

Proteasomes
 Also serve degradative functions
 Not membrane-bound
 Mainly degrades targeted intracellular proteins

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Peroxisomes
 Also called microbodies
 Membrane-bound
 They contain oxidative enzymes for detoxification

Free Ribosomes
 Located throughout cytoplasm unassociated with ER
 Translates mRNA for cytosolic proteins

Cytoskeleton
 Consist of;
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules EMMANUEL, T.O 15
 Microfilaments
 Thin protein structure found everywhere in the cell
 Hold the shape of the cell & facilitate movement
 They are part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells

 Intermediate Filaments
 Primarily structural in function
 Varies in different cell types e.g. Neurofilaments (Neurons)

 Microtubules
 Also called moving chromosomes
 They play a vital role in cell division (Mitosis & Meiosis)
 Also important in movement of cilia, flagella & thin hair like
structures EMMANUEL, T.O 16
 ASSIGNMENT; Classify cell organelles into membrane-
bound and non membrane-bound

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THANK YOU

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EMMANUEL, T.O
 LECTURE 2

PHYSIOCHEMICAL
PROPERTIES OF CELL
MEMBRANE & MEMBRANE
PROTEINS
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EMMANUEL, T.O
 Introduction
• The plasma membrane surrounds & protect the cell
• It separates the intracellular contents from the ECF
• Consist of a 5nm thick lipid layer & associated proteins
• Contains membrane-associated proteins;
Some integrated into the lipid bilayer

Some loosely attached to the inner membrane surface

Some loosely attached to outer surface

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• The membrane is chemically composed of:
Protein: 60 to 80%
Phospholipids: 20 to 40%
Cholesterol in small amount
Carbohydrates in small amount

• Different models were put forward in trying to describe

the structure and composition of cell membrane before
the final model that is currently accepted
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• Old Concepts

• Charles Overton: Discovered that substances which

are soluble in lipids enter cells more rapidly than
substances insoluble in lipid. Therefore, he concluded
that plasma membrane was composed of lipid

• Irving Langmuir: He made artificial membranes by

adding phospholipids in benzene to water. Benzene
evaporated and phospholipids
EMMANUEL, T.O membrane was formed
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E. Gorter and F. Grendel
• They described cell membrane as being phospholipid
bilayers
• Evert Gorter and François Grendel (Dutch
physiologists) proposed this theory in 1925
• The hydrophobic ends of the phospholipids molecules
are directed inward & hydrophilic ends of the
membrane directed outward
• They tried to measure the exact contents of plasma
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Sandwich model of Davson-Danielli
• They presented this model in 1935

• It was the most acceptable model at that time

• They described the lipid bilayers as being surrounded by

two layers of proteins like sandwich
• Also suggested that all cell membranes have similar
structure
• They proposed the "pauci-molecular" theory i.e. All
biological membranes have a "lipoid" center surrounded by
mono-layers of lipid that are covered
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by protein mono-
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• Sandwich model of plasma membrane

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• Two objections were raised against this model;
All membranes did not look alike under the electron
microscope. Plasma membrane appear thicker than
mitochondrial membrane. The percentage of lipids &
protein also differ among membranes
Many researchers did not accept the location of
proteins as described in Sandwich model. Protein
molecules also have hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends.
Hydrophobic end cannot be placed on hydrophilic end
of lipid & vice versa
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Fluid Mosaic Model (FMM)
• Advanced by Jonathan Singer & Garth Nicolson
(1972)
• This is the dominant model at the moment
• Has two key features;
A mosaic of proteins embedded in the membrane

The membrane being a fluid bi-layer of lipids

• This model introduced the trans-membrane proteins

and eliminates the notion of ‘flanking protein’
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According to the FMM, membrane contains;
• Proteins which are in three (3) classes:
Integral proteins: Immersed in the bi-layer
Peripheral proteins: They are attached to the inner
or outer membrane surface
Lipid anchored proteins: Also located on the
surface of the membrane & are covalently attached
to lipid molecules embedded in the layer

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• Phospholipids which have two ends:
Polar spherical heads located over the cell
surfaces (outer and inner). They are called
hydrophilic (“water attracting”)
Nonpolar end ‘or tails (fatty acid molecules) which
face each other in the middle of the bilayer. The
“tails” of both phospholipid layers attract each other
& repelled by water (hydrophobic)

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• Cholesterol molecules which are embedded in the
interior of the membrane
Make the membrane less permeable to water-soluble
substances
Gives membrane it’s rigid structure & stability

• Carbohydrate which is present in two forms:

Glycoproteins: The type united with proteins

Glycolipids: United with lipids on membrane surface

NB; Glycocalyx (Surface carbohydrates + Protein + Lipids

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Cell Membrane

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Important points in the fluid mosaic model include;
• Membrane is a double layer (bilayer) of proteins &
phospholipids
• The phospholipids bi-layer forms a fluid “sea” & the
proteins float in this sea like iceberg
• The membrane is in a constant state of shifting &
changing but retains its uniform structure
• It is currently the accepted model of membrane
structure
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FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANES
• It regulate movement of materials in and out of the cell

• It separates the inside of the cell from the outside

• It separates various organelles within the cell

• It provides a large surface area for specific chemical

reactions
• It separates cells from one another

• It forms site for receptor expression (specific cell

identification)
• It allows some substances to move in and keeps others out
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(selective permeability essential for cellular homeostasis)
Assignment: Discuss the membrane proteins and
their functions

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