Physical Layer

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 1. Physical Layer

a) Convert the logical 1’s and 0’s coming from
layer 2 into electrical signals.
5 Session
b) Transmission of the electrical signals over a
communication channel.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Transmission mediums
• Modulation
• Ethernet standards
2 Data Link • Repeaters
• Hubs (multi-port repeater)
• Multiplexing
1 Physical

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 7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
5 Session Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce
the effect of crosstalk noise. (e.g. Cat5, UTP, STP)
4 Transport
Baseband Coaxial Cable
3 Network A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission. Used
in 10Base2 and 10Base5.
2 Data Link Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such
1 Physical as Cable TV.

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 7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation Fiber Optic Cables

Two general types are multimode and single mode.
5 Session In multimode, light is reflected internally. Light
source is an LED.
4 Transport

3 Network In single mode, the light propagates in a straight

line. Light source come from expensive laser
diodes. Faster and longer distances as compared
2 Data Link to multimode.

1 Physical
* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
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 7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
5 Session
Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must “see” each other,
4 Transport such as a terrestrial microwave system.

Communication Satellites
3 Network
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is
broadcasted
2 Data Link
Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as
1 Physical
FM, UHF, and VHF television.

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 7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Modulation
Modulating a sine wave carrier to convey data.
5 Session
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude is increased/decreased while frequency
4 Transport remains constant.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

3 Network
Frequency is increased/decreased while amplitude
remains constant.
2 Data Link
Phase Modulation
Wave is shifted, while amplitude and frequency
1 Physical
remains constant.

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 • Generally, a communication channel such as an
optical fiber or coaxial cable can carry only one
signal at any moment in time. This results in
wastage of bandwidth. However, we can
overcome this drawback by using a technique
called multiplexing. By using the multiplexing
technique, we can easily send multiple signals
Multiplexing simultaneously over a communication channel
(medium).
• Multiplexing is a technique which combines
multiple signals into one signal, suitable for
transmission over a communication channel
such as coaxial cable or optical fiber.
Multiplexing is also sometimes referred to as
muxing.
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 Frequency Division
Multiplexing
• Frequency division multiplexing is an analog technique. It is
the most popular multiplexing technique. We use this
technique extensively in TV and radio transmission. This
technique combines multiple signals into one signal and
transmitted over the communication channel. Frequency
division multiplexing is also known as FDM.
• In this technique, the bandwidth of the communication
channel should be twice than the combined bandwidth of
individual signals.

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How FDM system works
• The transmitter end contains multiple transmitters and the receiver end
contains multiple receivers. The communication channel is present
between the transmitter and receiver.
• At transmitter end, each transmitter sends a signal of different frequency.
In the below figure, the transmitter 1 sends a signal of 30 kHz, transmitter
2 sends a signal of 40 kHz, and transmitter 3 sends a signal of 50 kHz.
These signals of different frequencies are then multiplexed or combined
by using a device called multiplexer. It then transmits the multiplexed
signals over a communication channel.

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 • Wavelength division multiplexing is an analog technique. It
is the most important and most popular method to
increase the capacity of an optical fiber. We know that
wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to
each other (I.e. longer wavelength means low frequency
and shorter wavelength means high frequency). Therefore,
Wavelength the working principle of wavelength division multiplexing is
similar to frequency division multiplexing. The only
Division difference is in wavelength division multiplexing optical
signals are used instead of electrical signals. In wavelength
Multiplexing division multiplexing, optical signals are transmitted
through fiber optic cables.
• Wavelength division multiplexing is a technology in which
multiple optical signals of different wavelengths or colors
are combined into one signal and is transmitted over the
communication channel. Thus multiple signals are
transmitted simultaneously over a single communication
channel.

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 • The transmitter end contains multiple optical transmitters
and the receiver end contains multiple optical receivers.
The communication channel (optical fiber) is present
between the transmitter and receiver.
• At transmitter end, each transmitter sends an optical signal
of different wavelength or color. These optical signals of
different wavelengths or colors are then multiplexed or
combined by using a device called multiplexer.
• The multiplexed signals are then transmitted over a single
How it works communication channel (optical fiber). In between the
transmitter and receiver, optical amplifiers are used to
compensate the optical signal loss caused during the
transmission.
• At the receiver end, the multiplexed signals are separated
by using a device called demultiplexer. The separated
signals are then sent to the respective receivers.

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 Digital Multiplexing

• The process of combining multiple digital signals into one

signal is called digital multiplexing.

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 • Time Division Multiplexing
• Time Division Multiplexing is a technique in which multiple
signals are combined and transmitted one after another on the
same communication channel.
Time • At the receiver side, the signals are separated and received.
Each signal is received by a user at a different time.
Division • Time Division Multiplexing is also simply referred to as TDM. It
is the digital multiplexing technique.
Multiplexin • In frequency division multiplexing, all signals of different
frequencies are transmitted simultaneously. But in time
g division multiplexing, all signals operate with the same
frequency are transmitted at different times.
• In frequency division multiplexing, the sharing of a channel is
done on the basis of frequency. But in time division
multiplexing, the sharing of a channel is done on the basis of
time.

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 • In time division multiplexing, each user is allotted a particular
time interval called time slot during which data is transmitted.
The time interval (time slot) allotted to each receiver (user) is
so small that the receiver will not detect that some time was
used to serve another receiver (user).
• In time division multiplexing, all signals are not transmitted
simultaneously; instead, they are transmitted one after
Explanation another. For example, as shown in the above figure, at first, we
send signal A. Then after second signal B and then after third
signal C and finally, we send last signal D. Thus, each user
occupies an entire bandwidth for a short period of time.
• In time division multiplexing, the bandwidth capacity of the
communication channel should be greater than the multiple
input signals.

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The main functions of the physical layer
• Physical layer is the actual carrier of information between computers/devices.
• It is the most important layer, as communication between computers cannot happen without a physical
layer.
• Data is actually carried between every adjacent node (computers/routers) by transmission of
electromagnetic/optical signals at the physical layer over wired/wireless media.
• Physical layer therefore encompasses the set of all protocols/standards used in different types of
Wired/Wireless interfaces and the telecommunication links connecting them.
• Typical examples of physical layer protocols are
a) Ethernet/DSL/Optical/WiFi/etc.
b) Connector type specifications like RJ11, RJ45 etc.
c) Link/Channel Multiplexing techniques like FDM, TDM etc.

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Reference
• Forouzan, B.A. Data Communicaiton and Networking, McGraw- Hill
Education. Global edition 5e(© 2013).

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