ALTERACIONES Y

PROPIEDADES DE LAS
ROCAS CARBONATADAS
PARA HOSPEDAR
MINERALIZACIÓN: FMS
CHAMBARÁ Y JUMASHA
Dr Juan Pablo Navarro Ramírez
juanpablonavarro.calizas@gmail.com
Lauricocha, Peru
 Carbonate sedimentary systems:

Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic

This become anoxic

Classification based on the amount of available nutrients (Phosphorus and Nitrogen) for organisms

http://rmbel.info/lake-trophic-states-2/ [ 2 ]
 Subdivisions according to geographic
distribution
Oligotrophic fertility Mesotrophic fertility

Photozoan assemblages Heterozoan communities

corals, stromatoporids, crinoids, bryozoans, bivalves,
coralline algae, ooids, brachiopods, oysters,
red algae, echinoids, benthic forams,
,
Schlager 2005 [ 3 ]
 Tethyan carbonate platform versus OAEs:

Valanginian Aptian

Oligotrophic mesotrophic eutrophic platform

assemblages communities conditions drowning
corals, stromatoporids, crinoids, bryozoans,
coralline algae, ooids, bivalves, brachiopods,

increased continental weathering rates

changes in δ13C records

intensified greenhouse climatic conditions

After Weissert et al. (1998) [ 4 ]

Example of a demised carbonate platform caused by input of
large quantities of argillaceous material.

Orbitolinid-bearing
limestones

Thinly-
bedded
limestones
Top of
discontinuity
surface S4
<

S4

Changes are caused due to enhanced hydrological conditions during OAE1a

After Huck et al. (2014)

[5]
Enhanced hydrological conditions, caused by intensification of the
climate, affect the carbonate production as observed in the Tethys Ocean

Weissert et al. (1998)

[6]
 Matrix and
grains

Subdivision of carbonate sedimentary rocks, After Dunham (1962)

Carbonate rocks consist of component particles and maybe some lime mud matrix and cement. The
skeletal and nonskeletal particles, along with mud and cement, hold an enormous amount of information
about the depositional and diagenetic environments that produced the reservoir rock!
[7]
 Porosity vs. Permeability

It is emphasized that grainstones are really good in terms of

permeability! [8]
Compactation as a function of carbonate texture

Diagenesis and fracturing do not always follow

depositional unit boundaries.
Although carbonate reservoirs exist in which
diagenetic porosity corresponds with depositional
rock properties (fabric - selective or facies –
selective diagenesis), in many instances it does not.

In the latter case, it is especially important

to identify the type of alteration, how it was
formed, when it was formed, and what
cross - cutting relationships it shares with other
diagenetic and fracture attributes.

Fractures cut across most rock boundaries but there

are some fundamental rock properties that dictate
how and where fractures will form.

Fractures happen as a result of brittle failure under

differential stress, usually in conjunction with
faulting or folding.
Fault and fold geometry can be determined;
therefore it follows that associated fracture patterns
can also be determined.

In short, there are many rock and petrophysical

characteristics in carbonates that expose a wealth of
information about the origin and architecture of
carbonate reservoirs.

[9]
 Typical carbonate Cretaceous facies from Cajamarca
Bioclastic facies are more interesting than others!
+

0,5 cm 0,5 cm 0,5 cm

0,5 cm 0,5 cm 0,5 cm

0,5 cm 0,5 cm 0,5 cm [ 10 ]

0,5 cm
0,5 cm 0,5 cm
The Wilson standard carbonate platform with its nine environmental subdivisions and their
accompanying standard microfacies. The concept of standard platform geometry with characteristic
facies representing different environmental subdivisions paved the way for modern methods of
sedimentary facies analysis and sequence stratigraphy. (Wilson (1975) and modified after by Ahr (2008).

[ 11 ]
 Elements to define the sedimentary facies.
Spatial distribution of marine fossils The sedimentological setting

Stein et al. (2010) Immenhauser (2005)

The fundamental rock properties that correspond to good, fair, and poor combined values of porosity and
permeability can be identified and put in larger stratigraphic context, or “ scaled - up.

Then the temporal and genetic characteristics of the large – scale petrologic and stratigraphic properties (proxies) are
used for reservoir prediction and flow unit mapping. [ 12 ]
Occurrence of trace fossils and their distribution in sedimentologic environments!

L. Buatois & MG Mangano 2011

[ 13 ]
[ 14 ]
[ 15 ]
Proxies for paleowater depth (physical sedimentology)

[ 16 ]
[ 17 ]
[ 18 ]
[ 19 ]
Palaeo-bathymetric model for deep, high-energy, cool-water temperate carbonate shelve
settings (Immenhauser, 2009). [ 20 ]
 Definition “Carbonate matrix”
Introduction:
Carbonate mud is the equivalent of clay in terrigenous rocks and can form pure
deposits (variously termed micrites, carbonate mudstones, lime mudstones, or
calcimudstones on the carbonate side, and claystones or shales on the clastic
terrigenous side).

Definitions:
Micrite: The term is used both as a synonym for carbonate mud and for a rock
composed of carbonate mud (calcilutite). Micrite consists of 1 to 4 μm-diameter
crystals and forms as an inorganic precipitate or through breakdown of coarser
carbonate grains. Micrite is produced within the basin of deposition and shows little
or no evidence of significant transport (Folk, 1959).

Microspar - Generally 5- to 20-μm-sized calcite produced by recrystallization

(neomorphism) of micrite; can be as coarse as 30 μm (Folk, 1965). Restricted to
recrystallization products, not primary precipitates.

Pseudospar - A neomorphic (recrystallization) calcite fabric with average crystal size

larger than 30-50 μm (Folk, 1965).

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 21 ]

 Sparsely fossiliferous micrite with skeletal
fragments are in the micrite- (clay)-size
range, but others are silt-sized, a common
feature in fragmental micrite
XPL, HA = 1.5 mm
.

This ancient micritic limestone is also known

as a lithographic limestone, and is so named
because it is pure and fine-grained enough to be
used for high-quality lithographic printing plates.
XPL, HA = 1.5 mm

Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005)

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 22 ]

 Definition “Grains”
Introduction: Various names are in use for organic and non-organic particles of
limestones that are larger than the groundmass:

Grains, particles, constituents, and 'allochems'. The last term is a collective term for
mechanically deposited grains that have undergone transportation in most cases
(Folk 1962).

Grosso modo skeletal grains and non-skeletal grains can be separated. Skeletal
grains comprise complete or fragmented fossils.

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 23 ]

 A rock with numerous umbrella voids
(shelter pores) beneath bivalve shells. HA =
1.5 mm

This example of true micritic matrix shows a mix

of various sizes of skeletal material (through
sand and silt grades), and microcrystalline
material both external to the grains and as a
geopetal filling within a gastropod chamber. HA
= 1.5 mm

[ 24 ]
Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005)
 Skeletal grains

A transverse section through a single, originally

aragonitic, gastropod. PPL, HA = 1.9 mm

Large numbers of a single species of

gastropod from a lacustrine environment.
PPL, HA = 13.5 mm

A molluscan packstone in which gastropods

are a major sediment contributor PPL, HA = 3.2 mm

[ 25 ]
Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005)
 Bivalves showing neomorphic alteration
(inversion) of their originally aragonitic shells. PPL,
HA = 2.0 mm

An aragonitic bivalve shells after diagenetic

alteration. The bivalve shells were dissolved
and the molds were later filled with sparry
calcite. PPL, HA = 7.0 mm

A rock with numerous umbrella voids

(shelter pores) beneath bivalve shells. HA =
1.5 mm
Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005) [ 26 ]
 Pisoids

Soil-related ferruginous pisoids. PPL, HA = 5.1

mm

Pisoids are coated grains larger than 2 mm in

diameter. Note the irregular, asymmetrically
coated grains with abundant inclusions of detrital
terrigenous silt and sand. PPL, HA = 16 mm

These too are dolomitized pisoids of uncertain

origin. These have been interpreted as the
product of microbial growth.PPL, BSE, HA = 16
mm
[ 27 ]
Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005)
 A micritic oncoid with weakly layered,
fenestral encrustations around a shell
fragment — these are common features of
microbial oncoids and they can be found
quite typically in shallow- to outer-shelf
settings. PPL, HA = 10 mm

An oncoid with lumpy, layered encrustations

around a bivalve shell. Proving a microbial/algal
origin (necessary in some definitions of
oncoids) can be difficult for many such grains.
PPL, HA = 20 mm
Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005)

[ 28 ]
Descriptive terminology of the major categories of carbonate grains [ 29 ]
Implication of carbonate grain studies. A statistically
based microfacies analysis of core slabs of gas-producing
carbonate reservoir rocks demonstrates the relationships
between grain types, depositional subfacies, and porosity
distribution (Flügel, 2004).

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 30 ]

 PPL/XPL, HA = 1.0 mm each
Non-skeletal grains: Ooids

XPL, HA = 0.85 mm
PPL, HA = 0.85 mm
Source: Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2005)
[ 31 ]
Factors controlling carbonate production

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 32 ]

 Temperature

Temperature control on reefs. Recent tropical reefs (red) are limited in the north and south by the
position of the 20°C-isoherm for the coldest winter month, shown here as a bold line.
Cool-water bioherms (blue) occur almost exclusively pole-ward of this line. The 20°C isoherm follows
the 30° latitude only approximately (compiled from ReefBase in Schlager, 2005). [ 33 ]

Predicted and observed values
of
coral growth versus depth.
Circles
Montastrea annularis, red
curves:
Light
Change of light intensity and tropical carbonate production with
depth. Light displays a simple exponential decrease with depth.
In tropical carbonate factories, the zone of light saturation
reaches to about 20 m for corals (after Bosscher and Schlager,
1992, modified).
[ 34 ]
Depth of the euphotic zone in the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean, constrained by the limits of reef
growth (Schlager, 2005). Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 35 ]
Growth forms of corals reflect the environmental
changes related to water depth. Example is from
the
Caribbean. Branching forms dominate the
uppermost, highenergy layer of the sea. Domal
and
massive forms occupy intermediate depths.
Below the zone of lightsaturation, corals become
platy and
foliose in order to capture a maximum amount of
light. At the biologically defined lower limit of
the euphotic zone, coral growth in this region is
almost negligible (Schlager 2005).

[ 36 ]
Factors controlling rates of carbonate
production

[ 37 ]
Northward decrease of reef growth and change to cool-water carbonate deposition in the North
Pacific. Upper panel: decrease of the rate of reef growth with latitude. Darwin Point marks the
northern limit of reef growth. Lower panel: longitudinal change from tropical to cool-water
carbonate facies observed on the Wasaii-Emperor chain of islands and seamounts (Schlager, [ 38 ]
Sedimentation rates of platform margins
and lagoons in Belize and Florida. Rates
of reef rims are 3 to 25 times higher than
the lagoon rates. The difference must
recollect higher growth potential of the
rim because
the lagoons are deep and have unused
accommodation (after Schlager, 2005).

[ 39 ]
 Oligotrophic assemblages
Mesotrophic communities
Source: Schlager W. (2005)
T (tropical) factory produces
platforms rimmed by reefs or sand
shoals;
C (coolwater) factory cannot
build
shallow offshore rims, only
scattered deep-water skeletal
mounds. The geometry of the
accumulations is that of a ramp
with
the highest energy conditions
close
to shore.
M (mound) factory forms convex
mounds on gentle slopes below
the
zone of wave action. The mounds
develop flat tops and caps of
grainstones where they build into
the zone of intense wave action.
The
flanks of mounds may be steeper
than the maximum angle of
repose
of sand and rubble (about 42°) [ 40 ]
because automicrite cements and
Map of the world showing approximately Late Cretaceous times. Note that the areas of pelagic
deposition are not shown separately but include much of the deep ocean and shelf sea. Not all the
deposits shown are entirely contemporaneous. Red lines indicate the subtropical zone of major [ 41 ]
 Oligotrophic
Mineralogía: el rol del origen assemblages

Mesotrophic
communities

Mesotrophic
communities

Schlager (2005)

Oligotrophic
assemblages

[ 42 ]
Oligotrophic Mesotrophic
assemblages communities

Production rates and depth window of

production of carbonate factories.
Dominance of photo-autotrophic (i.e.
lightdependent) organisms in the tropical
factory leads to very high production rates
but only in a narrow depth window (Schlager,
2005).

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 43 ]

Sedimentation rates of the T, C, and M factories
plotted against the length of the time interval of
observation. Rates of all three factories decreased
with increasing
time length – a general pattern of sedimentation
rates caused by the occurrence of hiatuses on all
scales in the record.

Rates of T factory are highest, M factory is similar but

overall production is lower as the factory exports less
sediment laterally. Rates of C factory are about 25%
of the T-factory rates in the million year domain (after
Schlager, 2005).

[ 44 ]
 Summary

• Carbonates differ in a number of characteristic ways from siliciclastic

settings. A main aspect is that carbonates a mainly biogenic whereas
siliciclastics are mainly physical in nature. Carbonates lithify rapidly whereas
siliciclastics lithify more slowly.

• Following Schlager, we differentiate three main carbonate factories: T, C and

M factory. Each factory has characteristic carbonate mineralogy and
proportion of controlled, induced or, abiogenic products.

• Production rates vary with time and between different factories with T
factories having the highest rates of carbonate production.

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 45 ]

 Chapter IV:

Carbonate
‘reefal’ facies
through time

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 46 ]

 Goals

• Understand that carbonate factories have change

considerably through geological time following
changes in the marine ecosystem.

• Understand that the past is not a priori a key to the

Present.

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 47 ]

Distribution of stromatolite types across a high-
energy (windward), Proterozoic, rimmed carbonate
shelf from lagoon to deep fore-slope. The barrier-
reef complex is
characterized by strongly elongate stromatolite
mounds and columns. Conical stromatolites form
below wave base; domal stromatolites grew in low-
energy, back-reef
lagoon; tufas,
Source: R. Wood including microdigitate stromatolites,
(1999)
formed by precipitation on tidal flats.

[ 48 ]
Precambrian stromatolite “reef” – South Africa. [ 49 ]
 2 3
5
Reconstruction of Upper
Cambrian reef community.
Llando Uplift, Texas.
4 1
1: Thrombolite;
2: eocrinoids;
3: lithistid sponges
(Wilberniscyathus);
2
4: calcified cyanobacterial 7
mats (Girvanella);
5: calcified cyanobacterial
bushes (Renalcis);
6: horizons rich in ooids;
7: wackestone/packstone
sediments; 8: gastropod 6

Source: R. Wood (1999)

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 50 ]

Sponges and crinoids

Anomalocaridid, a bizarre life form.

Cambrian reefal
communities
Natural History Museum Chicago and various other sources

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 51 ]

 8 5
4
1
2

6
3
7

Lower Ordovician reef reconstruction: Thrombolite-Lichenaria-Renalcis community. 1: Living algal

mats and thrombolite heads; 2: Lichenaria (tabulate coral); 3: Renalcis (calcified cyanobacterium); 4:
swimming trilobite; 5: crinoids; 6: brachiopods; 7: straight nautiloid; 8: coiled nautiloid; 9: grazing
Source: R. Wood (1999)
gastropod.

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 52 ]

 Nautilids, trilobites, gastropods, crinoids,
bryozoa….

Ordovician reefal communities

Natural History Museum Chicago and University of Wisconsin

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 53 ]

 7
10
3
5
12 1
2
6
9 8 4
11

Reconstruction of Silurian (Wenlock) patch reef, England. 1: Tabulate coral (Favosites); 2: tabulate
coral (Heliolites); 3: tabulate coral (Halysites); 4: bryozoan (Hallopora); 5: rugose coral; 6: spirifid
brachiopod (Atrypa); 7: crinoid; 8: brachiopod (Leptaena); 9: trilobite (Dalmanites); 10: orthocone
nautiloid; 11: stromatoporoid (Actinostroma); 12: thrombolite. Source: R. Wood (1999) [ 54 ]
Orthocone nautiloids, tabulate
corals, trilobites, ammonites,
stromatoporoids…

Silurian reefal
communities

Natural History Museum Chicago and various other sources

[ 55 ]
 4
7 14 2
5
8 3 6

10 12
1

15

16
13
11

Reconstruction of a Lower Carboniferous (Late Viséan) reef, Northern England. 1: Stromatolite

/microbialite; 2: tabulate coral; 3: tabulate coral (E. parasitica); 4: tabulate coral (Cladochonus); 5:
rugose coral Cyathaxonia); 6: bryozoan (Fistulipora); 7: frondose bryozoan (Fenestella); 8: Iithistid
sponge; 9: bivalve Pachypteria); 10: brachiopod (“Reticularia“); 11: rhynchonellid brachiopod
(Stenoscisma); 12: fenestrate ryozoan (Thamniscus); 13: productid brachiopod (Limbifera); 14:
productid brachiopod (Proboscidella); 15: myodocopid ostracod (Cypridinella, Entomonchus); 16:
trilobite (Griffithides); 17: strophomenid brachiopod (Streptorhynchus); 18: strophomenid brachiopod [ 56 ]
Source: R. Wood (1999)
 Carboniferous reefal
communities

Bryozoa, crinoids and

brachiopods

Natural History Museum Michigan and various other sources

[ 57 ]
Carboniferous brachiopod –
microbial micrite – cement
facies;
Asturias Spain.

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 58 ]

 1

6
3

Reconstruction of the Upper Permian Capitan Reef: bryozoan-sponge community. 1: Frondose

bryozoans (Polypora sp.; Goniopora sp.)2: solitary sponges; 3: Archaeolithoporella (encrusting algae);
4: microbial micrite; 5: cement botryoids; 6: sediment (grainstone-packstone). Source: R. Wood (1999) [ 59 ]
The Permian Capitan Reef, Texas,
New Mexico (USA) and Mexico.

University of Texas

[ 60 ]
 Permian reefal
communities

Shallow marine Permian life included

extensive reefs, including sponges

Natural History Museum Michigan and University of Wisconsin

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 61 ]

 2
1
5

7 9
4
3
8
12 11 10
6

Reconstruction of Jurassic (Oxfordian) coral patch-reef community, England. 1: Scleratinian coral

(Thecosmillia); 2: scleratinian coral (Isastrea); 3: scleratinian coral (T. arachnoides); 4: scleratinian
coral (T. concinna); 5: scleratinian coral (Rhabdophyllia); 6: bivalve (Lopha); 7: trochid gastropod; 8:
pectinid bivalve (Chlamys); 9: sea urchin (Cidaris); 10: terebratulid brachiopod; 11: bryozoan; 12:
sclerctianian coral (C. conybeari); 13: boring bivalve (Lithopaga). [ 62 ]
Source: R. Wood (1999)
Jurassic coral facies, Morocco

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 63 ]

 1

4
8

11
2
5

7
6
12

10

Reconstruction of Jurassic (Portlandian) oyster-algal patch-reef community, England. 1: Oyster (Liostrea); 2:

calcareous red algae (Solenopora); 3: thick bryozoan encruster (Hyporosopora); 4: boring bivalve (Lithophaga);
5: bivalve (Isognomon); 6: gastropod (Pleurotomaria); 7: gastropod (Aptyxiella): 8: spiny bivalve (Plicatula); 9:
lithistid sponge; 10: sponge borings; 11: boring sponge (Cliona); 12: pellets and fungal hyphae. [ 64 ]
Source: R. Wood (1999)
 Jurassic coral facies,
Morocco

Jurassic oyster facies, Morocco

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 65 ]

 2

Reconstruction of a rudist aggregation (Late Cretaceous). 1: Rudists (Vaccinites sp.); 2: ammonite; 3:

shell lags.
Source: R. Wood (1999) [ 66 ]
Campanian rudist “bioherm” – Oman. [ 67 ]
The diversity of life in the Cretaceous was unparallel, including a large number of large marine
animals, as well as flying dinosaurs (above).
Natural History Museum Michigan and University of Wisconsin

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 68 ]

Aptian coral – rudist platform
facies; Oman

[ 69 ]
 [ 70 ]
Compilation by T. Adatte, Lausanne
Generalized 3-D facies model of a ramp-type carbonate
platform (Source: Coe et al., 2003).

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 71 ]

Subdivision in a more muddy and a
more
grainy ramp showing the facies
evolution

Source: Christ et al. (in press)

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 72 ]

 Chapter VII:

Carbonate Sequence
Stratigraphy

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 73 ]

[ 74 ]
Position of sea surface relative to a fixed datum near the sea floor which takes into account
two components: eustasy and vertical movement of the sea floor (tectonism and/or sediment
compaction) (Posamentier, and Allen 1999). [ 75 ]
The 'base level' is the equilibrium surface at the
interface between sea and continent, below which sediment
will settle, above which erosion will occur. At any place of the earth it
shows its irregular geometry and defines the rate of erosion, bypass
and sedimentation (Homewood et al., 2002). [ 76 ]
 Accommodation space:

From Catuneanu et al. (2009): The amount of space that is available for sediments to fill up
to or erodes down to.

[ 77 ]
Orbital Forcing and Orders of Sea-Level Change

[ 78 ]
Here, cycles can be observed in the colouration and resistance of different strata
Prominent beds are approx. ½m in width. Gildor and Tziperman (2000)[ 79 ]
[ 80 ]
Chapter VII:

Sedimentary Systems Carbonates [ 81 ]

[ 82 ]
[ 83 ]
Defining sequence boundary:

[ 84 ]
[ 85 ]
[ 86 ]
Outcrop photos of phosphate- and glauconite-rich beds that formed during the episodes of
platform demise along the northern Tethyan margin. (a) Bu¨ls Bed (pertransiens zone, early
Valanginian) Fölmi et al. (2006) [ 87 ]
Maximum flooding surface:

[ 88 ]
[ 89 ]
 Pariatambo Fm

Chulec Fm
1m

Example of a maximum flooding interval which forms the contact between the
Chulec and Pariatambo formations in Cajamarca. [ 90 ]
 Systems tracts:

Transgressions and regressions. Note the retrogradation and progradation (lateral shifts) of
facies, as well as the surface that separates retrogradational from overlying progradational
geometries. This surface is known as the maximum flooding surface (MFS). [ 91 ]
Catuneanu, 2002
The sequence stratigraphy indicating sea level variations and their
corresponding system tract evolution

[ 92 ]
Catuneanu, 2002
 [ 93 ]
Catuneanu, 2002
Summary of the system tracts and sequence bodies in a seismic
interpretation.

[ 94 ]
Catuneanu, 2002
[ 95 ]