Chapter 3: Basic of Fluid Flow

SEQUENCE OF CHAPTER 3
Introduction
Objectives
3.1 Uniform Flow, Steady Flow
3.1.1 Laminar, Turbulent Flow
3.1.2 Compressible or Incompressible
3.2.1 Mass Flow Rate
3.2.2 Volume Flow Rate
3.3 The Fundamental Equations of Fluid Dynamics

3.3.1 Continuity (Principle of Conservation of Mass)

3.3.2 Work and Energy (Principle of Conservation of E

nergy)
 Objectives
1. comprehend the concepts necessary to analyse
fluids in motion.
2. identify differences between steady/unsteady,
uniform/non-uniform and
compressible/incompressible flow.
3. appreciate the Continuity principle through
Conservation of Mass and Control Volumes.
4. derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation.
5. familiarize with the momentum equation for a
fluid flow.
 3.1 Uniform Flow, Steady Flow
uniform flow: flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at
every point in the fluid.
non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the
same at every point the flow. (In practice, by this
definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary
will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must
take the speed of the boundary, usually zero. However if
the size and shape of the of the cross-section of the
stream of fluid is constant the flow is considered
uniform.)
steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity,
pressure and cross-section) may differ from point to point
but DO NOT change with time.
unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with
time, the flow is described as unsteady. (In practice there
is always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if
 3.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow
 all the particles proceed along smooth parallel
paths and all particles on any path will follow it
without deviation.
 Hence all particles have a velocity only in the
direction of flow.

Typical
particles
path

Figure 3.1a: Laminar flow

Turbulent Flow
 the particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.
 Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating
velocity components both transverse to and in the direction of the
net flow.

Particle
paths

Figure 3.1b: Turbulent flow

Transition Flow
 exists between laminar and turbulent flow.
 In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable
back and forth between laminar and turbulent states.
 Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow
may comprise short ‘burst’ of turbulence embedded in a laminar
flow.
 3.1.2 Compressible or Incompressible

Under steady conditions, and provided that the

changes in pressure are small, it is usually possible
to simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is
incompressible and has constant density.
As you will appreciate, liquids are quite difficult
to compress - so under most steady conditions they
are treated as incompressible.
 3.2.1 Mass flow rate

mass of fluid
mass flow rate = m = time taken to collect the fluid

mass
time =
mass flow rate
3.2.2 Volume flow rate - Discharge
discharge = Q = volume of fluid
time

(
= mass of fluid
density =
density x time
)mass
volume


=mass fluid rate m
= 
density
Example 3.1
 An empty bucket weighs 2.0 kg. After 7 seconds of collecting
water the bucket weighs 8.0 kg, then:

mass of fluid in bucket

mass flow rate = ṁ = time taken to collect the fluid

8.0 -2.0
= = 0.857 kg/s (kg s-1)
7
Example 3.2
 If we know the mass flow is 1.7 kg/s, how long will it take to
fill a container with 8 kg of fluid?

mass
time =
mass flow rate

8
= = 4.7s
1.7
Example 3.3
 If the density of the fluid in the above example is 850 kg/m 3
what is the volume per unit time (the discharge)?
mass fluid rate m
Q = = 
density
0.857
=
850
= 0.00108 m3/s (m3s-1)
= 1.008  10-3 m3/s
but 1 litre = 1.0 10-3m3,
so Q = 1.008 l/s
 3.3 The Fundamental Equations of Fluid
Dynamics
1. The law of conservation of matter
 specifies that matter can be neither created
nor destroyed, though it may be transformed
(e.g. by a chemical process).
 Since this study of the mechanics of fluids
excludes chemical activity from
consideration, the law reduces to the
principle of conservation of mass.
2. The law of conservation of energy
 states that energy may be neither created nor
destroyed.
 Energy can be transformed from one appearance to
another (e.g. potential energy can be transformed
into kinetic energy), but none is actually lost.
 Engineers sometimes loosely refer to ‘energy
losses’ due to friction, but in fact the friction
transforms some energy into heat, so none is really
‘lost’.
 3.3.1 Continuity (Principle of Conservation of
Mass)
• Matter cannot be created nor destroyed - (it is simply
changed in to a different form of matter).
• This principle is known as the conservation of mass and
we use it in the analysis of flowing fluids.
• The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as
control volumes or surfaces

CONTROL
Inflow VOLUME
Outflow

Control surface

Figure 3.10: A control volume

 For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says
Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase of mass in the control
per unit time per unit time volume per unit time
For steady flow:
(there is no increase in the mass within the control volume)
 Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Mass entering per unit time

at end 1 = Mass leaving per
unit time at end 2

Figure 3.11: A streamtube section

 flow is incompressible, the density of the fluid is
constant throughout the fluid continum. Mass flow, m,
entering may be calculated by taking the product
(density of fluid, )  (volume of fluid entering per
second Q)
 Mass flow is therefore represented by the product Q,
hence
 Q (entering) =  Q (leaving)
 But since flow is incompressible, the density is constant,
so
Q (entering) = Q (leaving)
 This is the ‘continuity equation’ for steady
incompressible flow.
 If the velocity of flow across the entry to the
control volume is measured, and that the velocity
is constant at V1 m/s. Then, if the cross-
sectional area of the streamtube at entry is A1,
Q (entering) = V1 A1
 Thus, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is
V2 and the area of the streamtube at exit is A2,
then
Q (leaving) = V2A2
 Therefore, the continuity equation may also be
written as
V1A1 = V2A2
Application of Continuity Equation
 We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross
sections which change along their length.
 A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is
narrowing in the same direction. By the continuity principle,
the mass flow rate must be the same at each section - the
mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass going out of
the pipe. So we can write:
1 A1V1= 2 A2V2
 As we are considering a liquid, usually water,
which is not very compressible, the density
changes very little so we can say 1 =2 =.
This also says that the volume flow rate is
constant or that
 Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section
2
Q1 = Q 2 A 1 V1 Figure 3.12:
Pipe with a contraction
A1V1 = A2V2 or V2 = A2
 As the area of the circular pipe is a function of the
diameter we can reduce the calculation further,

A1 d12/4 d 12
V2V1== V1=2 V1
A2 d2 /4 d 22

( ) d 12
2

V2 =Vd1 2 (3.6)
2
Another example is a diffuser, a pipe which expands or
diverges as in the figure below
The continuity principle can also be used to determine the
velocities in pipes coming from a junction.

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction
1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water) 1 = 2 = 
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3 (3.7)
Example 3.5
 If the area in Figure 3.12 A1 = 10  10-3 m2 and A1 = 10  10-3
m2 and and the upstream mean velocity, V1 = 2.1 m/s, what
is the downstream mean velocity?
A 1 V1 10 x 10-3 x 2.1
V2 == 3 x 10-3
A2

= 7.0 m/s
Example 3.6
 If the diameter of a diffuser (Figure 3.13) at section 1 is d1 =
30 mm and at section 2 d2 = 40 mm and the mean velocity at
section 2 is V2 = 3.0 m/s. Calculate the velocity entering the
diffuser.

( )
2
40
3.0 = 5.3m/s
V2 = 30
3.3.2 Work and Energy
(Principle Of Conservation Of Energy)

 friction: negligible
 sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy is constant. Recall :
 Kinetic energy = ½ mV2
 Gravitational potential energy = mgh
(m: mass, V: velocity, h: height above the datum).
To apply this to a falling body we have an initial velocity of
zero, and it falls through a height of h.
 Initial kinetic energy = 0
 Initial potential energy = mgh
 Final kinetic energy = ½ mV2
 Final potential energy = 0
We know that,
 kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

Initial Initial Final Final

{ kinetic
Energy
} +{ potential
Energy
} ={ Kinetic
Energy
} +{ Potential
Energy
}
mgh = ½ mV2 or V  2 gh
continuous jet of liquid
Figure 3.15 :
The trajectory
of a jet of water

 a continuous jet of water coming from a pipe with velocity V1.

 One particle of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls from
height z1 to z2.
 The velocity also changes from V1 to V2. The jet is traveling in air where the
pressure is everywhere atmospheric so there is no force due to pressure acting
on the fluid.
 The only force which is acting is that due to gravity. The sum of the kinetic
and potential energies remains constant (as we neglect energy losses due to
friction) so :
mgz1 + mV12 = mgz2 + mV22
 As m is constant this becomes :
V12 + gz1 = V22 + gz2
Flow from a reservoir
• The level of the water in the reservoir is z1.
Considering the energy situation - there is no
movement of water so kinetic energy is zero but
the gravitational potential energy is mgz1.
• If a pipe is attached at the bottom water flows
along this pipe out of the tank to a level z2. A
mass m has flowed from the top of the reservoir
to the nozzle and it has gained a velocity V2. The
Figure 3.16 : Flow kinetic energy is now ½mV22 and the potential
from a reservoir energy mgz2. Summarising :
 Initial kinetic energy = 0
 Initial potential energy = mgz1
 Final kinetic energy = ½ mV22
 Final potential energy = mgz2
So
mgz1 = ½ mV22 + mgz2
mg ( z1 - 2zg2( z1)=z 2½
) mV22

 V2 = (3.8)
Example 3.8
A reservoir of water has the surface at 310 m above the outlet nozzle of a pipe with
diameter 15mm. What is the
 velocity;
 the discharge out of the nozzle; and
 mass flow rate. (Neglect all friction in the nozzle and the pipe)
Solution:
a) V 2  2 g ( z1  z 2 )
 2  g  310
 78.0 m / s
b) Volume flow rate is equal to the area of the nozzle multiplied by the velocity
Q = AV
=  d2 
   V 
 4 
 0.0152 
=      78.0
 4 

= 0.01378 m3/s
c) The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 so the mass flow rate is
ṁ = density  volume flow rate
=Q
= 1000  0.01378
= 13.78 kg/s
Bernoulli's Equation
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
We see that from applying equal pressure or zero velocities we get
the two equations from the section above. They are both just special
cases of Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli's equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
are:
 Flow is steady;
 Density is constant (which also means the fluid is incompressible);
 Friction losses are negligible.
 The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline,
(not conditions on two different streamlines).
 Figure 3.19 :
A contracting
expanding pipe

• A fluid of constant density = 960 kg/m3 is flowing steadily through the

above tube. The diameters at the sections are d1 = 100mm and d2 =
80mm. The gauge pressure at 1 is P1 = 200 kN/m2 and the velocity here is
V1 = 5m/s. What is the gauge pressure at section 2.
• Bernoulli equation is applied along a streamline joining section 1 with
section 2.
• The tube is horizontal, with z1 = z2 so Bernoulli gives us the following
equation for pressure at section 2:
P2 = P1 + (V12 – V22)
 But we do not know the value of V2. We can calculate this from the continuity
equation: Discharge into the tube is equal to the discharge out i.e.
A1V1  A2V2
A1V1
V2 
A2
2
d 
V2   1  V1
 d2 
2
 0.1 m/s

= 7.8125  5
 0.08 
So we can now calculate the pressure at section 2

 960 2
P2 = P1+ (V12 – V22) = 200000 + 2 (5 – 7.8125 )
2
2
p2 = 200000 -17296.87
= 182703 N/m2
= 182.7 kN/m2
Summary
This chapter has outlined and discussed on the fundamental of fluid
in motion. Students are aspect to be able to discuss and visualise on
the following aspect:
 Able to classify FOUR (4) types of flow- Steady uniform flow, Steady
non-uniform flow, Unsteady uniform flow and Unsteady non-uniform
flow
 The differences between Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and
also Transition Flow
 The idea of using the streamline to visualise the flow pattern
 The calculation of mass flow rate, volume flow rate and the
mean velocity of the flow
 Able to explain and apply the THREE (3) laws- conservation of
matter (conservation of mass); conservation of energy and
conservation of momentum
The important of Bernoulli Equation and the derivation