MS3220 – THERMAL ENGINEERING

13 T H WEEK

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

SECTIONS: 10.1-10.11
CHAPTER 10: BOILING AND
CONDENSATION
10.1 Dimensionless Parameters in Boiling and Condensations
10.2 Boiling Modes
10.3 Pool Boiling
10.4 Pool Boiling Correlations
10.5 Forced Convection Boiling
10.6 Condensation: Physical Mechanisms
10.7 Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
10.8 Turbulent Film Condensation
10.9 Film Condensation on Radial Systems
10.10 Condensation in Horizontal Tubes
10.11 Dropwise Condensation 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Subtopics
1. Boiling mechanism: nucleate boiling,
critical heat flux (qmax), transition region,
Leidenfrost point (qmin), film boiling.
2. Empirical equation at the nucleate boiling 
regime, qmax, qmin, and film boiling.
3. Flow phenomenon and empirical
equations for forced convection boiling
1. Condensation mechanism, film
condensation, Nusselt assumptions.
2. Condensation flow regime, empirical
equation to predict heat transfer
coefficient for different regimes.
3. Condensation on different geometries,
vertical wall, sphere, tube, array, inside a
horizontal pipe.
4. Dropwise condensation.
Learning Objectives Source
 Understand the boiling mechanism: nucleate boiling,
critical heat flux (qmax), transition region, Leidenfrost point
((qmin), film boiling.
Bergman et al.,
Able to apply the empirical equation to analyze the nucleate 10.1-10.5
boiling regime, qmax, qmin, and film boiling.
 Understand the flow phenomenon and empirical equations
for forced convection boiling.
 Understand the condensation mechanism and heat transfer
through the condensate.
 Able to predict the condensation rate, heat transfer
coefficient, heat transfer rate and condensate thickness on a
vertical plate at different regime: laminar, wavy, and
Bergman et al.,
turbulent.
10.6-10.11
 Able to predict heat transfer coefficient or heat transfer rate
on various geometries, sphere, horizontal cylinder, and
inside a horizontal cylinder.
 Understand dropwise condensation and able to use the
empirical equation to predict heat transfer coefficient.
3
INTRODUCTION ON
BOILING AND
CONDENSATION 4
 CHANGE OF PHASE
Types of Change of Phase:
1. Solid to Liquid: Melting
2. Liquid to Solid: Freezing
3. Liquid to Gas/Vapor: Vaporization
4. Vapor to Liquid: Condensation
5. Solid to Vapor: Sublimation
6. Vapor to Solid: Sublimation

Usually, the latent of heat associated with change of phase is significant.

oBoiling is a rapid vaporization of a liquid when heated through a solid surface.
oConversely, condensation from vapor to liquid is due to heat transfer to the solid surface.
5
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
 T-S AND H-S DIAGRAMS FOR
H2O

6
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Boiling and Condensation occur between solid-liquid and solid-vapor interface and are classified as
convection heat transfer mode since they involve fluid motions.
Boiling is the change of state of the fluid from liquid to vapor due to heat transfer from a solid surface.
Condensation is the change of state of the fluid from vapor to liquid due to heat transfer to a solid surface.
During boiling and condensation, when the phase change, large latent heat transfer can occur while the
temperature stays constant.
Parameters important in characterizing the boiling and condensation:
1. Latent heat, hfg.
2. Surface tension at the liquid-vapor interface, .
3. Density difference between two phases, (g), that creates buoyancy force.
Equipment involve with boiling and condensation: boilers, condensers, evaporators, etc., are used in
power plants, refrigeration units, process plants, etc.
7
10.1 DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETERS IN
BOILING AND
CONDENSATION 8
 DIMENSIONLESS
PARAMETERS IN BOILING
AND CONDENSATION
In boiling and condensation, the convection coefficients could depend on:
1. The difference between the surface and saturation temperatures, .
2. The body force arising from the liquid-vapor density difference,
3. The latent heat,
4. The surface tension, . ∆𝑇
5. A characteristic length, .
6. The thermophysical properties of the liquid or vapor:
Therefore:
h =h ¿ ¿
9
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
Using the Buckingham pi theorem there are 10 variables, in 5 dimensions (m, kg,
s, J, K), there are (10-5) = 5 pi-groups which can be expressed as:

[ ]
3
h𝐿 𝜌 𝑔(𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )𝐿 𝑐 𝑝 Δ𝑇 𝜇𝑐 𝑝 g(𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )
=𝑓 , , ,
𝑘 𝜇
2
𝑘 𝑘 𝜎
Or, in the dimensionless groups, the relationship for boiling/condensation:

𝑁 𝑢𝐿= 𝑓
[
𝜌 𝑔(𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )𝐿3
𝜇 2
, 𝐽𝑎 , 𝑃𝑟 , 𝐵𝑜
]
Where:
• Ja is Jakob number: ratio of the maximum sensible energy absorbed by the
liquid (vapor) to the latent energy absorbed by the liquid (vapor) during
condensation (boiling), usually has a small number, and
• Bo is Bond number: the ratio of the buoyancy force to the surface tension force.
• The first term resembles the Grashof number and represent the effect of
buoyancy-induced fluid motion on heat transfer. Note:
10
PART I: BOILING
 WHAT IS BOILING? (1’:10”)

12
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Py0GEByCke4
WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY BOILING?

In your daily life RDK 8 (Germany) employs ultra-

supercritical steam technology, whereby the
water pressure inside the plant's giant boiler
Desalination reaches 4,400 psi (300 bars), more than is
exerted when a bullet strikes a solid object;
resulting in a world record plant thermal
efficiency of 47.5%. *https://www.power-
technology.com/

Electronic cooling 13
10.2 BOILING MODES
14
BOILING
• Boiling is when evaporation occurs at a solid-liquid interface when the temperature of the
surface temperature Ts > the saturation temperature Tsat corresponding to the liquid
pressure.
• Vapor bubbles are formed, grow, detached from the heating surface, propelled up through
the liquid, then escaped from the free surface at the top.
Heat transfer flux, q”: 𝑞 ”𝑠 =h (𝑇 𝑠 −𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 )

Where: Excess Temp.: Δ 𝑇 𝑒 ≡ ( 𝑇 𝑠 − 𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 )

Vapor bubble growth and dynamics depend on:
1. The excess temperature,
2. Surface properties, and
3. Thermophysical properties e.g., surface tension.
Boiling depends on the surface roughness.
Kim, Dong Eok, et al. "Review of boiling heat transfer enhancement on
micro/nanostructured surfaces." Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science
66 (2015): 173-196. 15
 BOILING MODES
Based on the liquid motion:
1. Pool boiling, liquid is quiescent and its motion near the surface is due to free
convection and due to mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment.
2. Forced convection boiling, fluid motion is induced by external means, as well
as by free convection and bubble-induced mixing.

Based on the temperature:

3. Sub-cooled boiling: most liquid temperature < saturation temperature,
bubbles formed at the surface may condense in the liquid.
4. Saturated boiling: liquid temperature > saturation temperature, bubbles
formed at the surface are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy
forces, eventually escaping from a free surface of the liquid.
16
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/heat-transfer/boiling-and-condensation/subcooled-boiling/
10.3 POOL BOILING
17
Saturated Pool Boiling:
1. There is a sharp increase in the liquid temperature close to the solid surface.
2. The temperature through most of the liquid remains slightly above saturation.
3. Bubbles generated at the liquid-solid interface therefore rise to and are transported
across the liquid-vapor interface.
The physical mechanism may be obtained by observing the boiling curve.

18
THE (NUKIYAMA’S) BOILING CURVE
Nukiyama’s setup (1934), Power
Controlled Heating:
1. Heater: horizontal nichrome and
platinum wires, q” = I x E.
2. T is measured thru resistance
thermometry T = f(R).
Observations:
1. Boiling does not begin until DTe ≈ 5o C
2. Heat flux increases until q”max then Twire jump to Tmelting.
3. Sudden decrease in at q”min during cooling.
4. The hysteresis is a consequence of the power-controlled
method of heating and confirmed by Drew & Mueller.
19
10.3.2 MODES OF POOL
BOILING
Modes of Pool Boiling:
1. Free Convection: Use free convection correlations in
Chapter 9. , and . Use Eq. 9.31 for large horizontal
plate.
2. Nucleate boiling: () . Regimes: isolated bubbles and
jets/columns.
3. Transition boiling: () . Also called unstable or partial
film boiling.
4. Film boiling:

At A: ONB: Onset of Nucleate Boiling.

At P: The curve levels off.
At C: CHF: Critical Heat Flux: q”s,C = q”max. Also called
burnout point or boiling crisis. Do not exceed it.
At D: Leidenfrost point: q”s,D = q”min.

20
21
10.4 POOL BOILING
CORRELATIONS
22
POOL BOILING
CORRELATIONS
FREE CONVECTION REGIME
In Free Convection Regime, use correlations in Chapter
9, Eq. 9.31:

23
 10.4.1 NUCLEATE POOL BOILING
Rohsenow correlation:
} = {}𝜇 rsub {}𝑙 {h} rsub {𝑓𝑔} {left [{𝑔 left ({𝜌} rsub {}𝑙 − {}𝜌 rsub {}𝑣 right )} over {}𝜎 right ]} ^ { 1} over {2} {left ({ 𝑐} rsub {𝑝𝑙, } Δ{}𝑇 rsub {}𝑒 } over { 𝐶} rsub {𝑠𝑓, } {h} rsub {𝑓𝑔} {𝑃𝑟} rsub {}𝑙 rsup {}𝑛 } right )} ^ {3 ¿
𝑞
𝑠
(10.5)

• All properties are for liquid, except

for , and all should be evaluated at
Tsat.
• See Tables A.6 and A.5 for and hfg.
• See Table 10.1 for Cs,f and n.
• Applies only to clean surfaces.

Forced convection correlation Bubble diameter: Velocity & time between bubbles:

mfc = 2/3
These equations are used to derive the Rohsenow correlation, above. 24
10.4.2 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX FOR
NUCLEATE POOL BOILING (q”MAX)
At point C, there is a Critical Heat Flux (CHF), where q”s,C =q”max
obtained through dimensional analysis and hydrodynamic stability analysis
as (Kutateladze [9] & Zuber [10]):

• All properties are evaluated at Tsat.

• For large horizontal cylinders, spheres, and many large finite heated surfaces,
C = /24 0.131 (the Zuber constant).
• For large horizontal plates, C = 0.149.
• The equation applies for large heater where characteristic length of heater, L,
is large relative to bubble diameter, Db.
• For small heaters, where the Confinement number, /L = Bo-1/2 > 0.2, a
correction factor must be applied [11, 12].
• The critical heat flux depends strongly on pressure, that influences hfg and

25
10.4.3 MINIMUM HEAT FLUX OR
LEIDENFROST POINT (q”MIN)
From Zuber (1958):
At point D, or at Leidenfrost Point, the heat flux from a large horizontal plate
is minimum, where q”s,D = q”min:

• All properties are evaluated at Tsat.

• For most fluids at moderate pressure, C = 0.09 (Berenson, 1991).
• Accurate to about 50% for most fluids at a moderate pressure, poor estimate
for high pressure. Similar results for horizontal cylinders.

• Note: the Transition Boiling Regime is of little practical interest, obtained

only by controlling the surface temperature. It is characterized by
periodic unstable contact between the liquid and the heated surface.
26
10.4.4 FILM POOL BOILING
At this regime, a continuous vapor Based on the condensation theory, film boiling
blankets the surface and there is no correlation on a cylinder or sphere of diameter D is:
contact between the liquid phase and the
surface.

• C is 0.62 for horizontal cylinders, and 0.67 for spheres.

• The corrected latent heat is , which accounts for the sensible energy
required to maintain Tvapor blanket above Tsat.
• Vapor properties are evaluated at psystem and Tf = (Ts +Tsat)/2, while and are
evaluated at Tsat.
• At Tsurface > 300oC, thermal radiation plays significant role. The total heat
transfer coefficient should be calculated as:
• If , a simpler form may be used:
• The effective radiation coefficient is expressed as:

• Where is the emissivity of the solid (Table A.11), and is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant. 27
 10.4.5 PARAMETRIC EFFECTS ON
POOL BOILING
Other Parameters that can affect pool boiling:
1. Gravitational Field: important in space travel and rotating
machinery. In maximum and minimum heat fluxes, and for film
boiling, the equations depend on g1/4. For nucleate boiling, q” is
nearly independent of g, although Eg. 10.5 depends on g1/2.
2. Liquid Sub-cooling: occur when T < Tsat and In the natural
convection regime, or , where 5/4 n 4/3 depending on the
geometry of heated surface. In nucleate boiling, the influence of
subcooling is negligible, and q”max and q”min increase linearly
with . For film boiling, q” increases strongly with .
3. Solid Surface Conditions: surface roughness by machining,
grooving, scouring and sandblasting, is negligible on q”max,
q”min, and film boiling; but has significant influence on q” for
nucleate boiling. Enhancement surfaces by processing and
machining are often used.

Kim, Dong Eok, et al. "Review of boiling heat transfer

enhancement on micro/nanostructured surfaces."
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 66 (2015): 173-196.
Try Examples 10.1 & 10.2 28
You can control boiling by varying the surface
properties!

Variation of microstructure coating

Surface Sarangi et al. "Effect of particle size on surface-coating enhancement

roughness of pool boiling heat transfer." International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer 81 (2015): 103-113.
of coating

Heat flux 29
EXAMPLE 10.1

30
EXAMPLE 10.1

31
EXAMPLE 10.1

• Excess temperature can be calculated by,

• According to the boiling curve of Figure 10.4,

nucleate pool boiling will occur and the
recommended correlation for estimating the
heat transfer rate per unit area of plate
surface is given by

32
EXAMPLE 10.1

The
• The boiling heat flux is then, values of
Cs, f and n:

• And the boiling heat transfer rate,

Answer 1
33
EXAMPLE 10.1

• Under steady-state conditions all heat addition to the pan will result in water
evaporation from the pan. Hence,
Answer 2

• The critical heat flux for nucleate pool boiling can be estimated from Eq. 10.6:

Answer 3

Note: q”s < q”max; and q”min can also be calculated by using Eq. 10.4 as 18.9 kW/m 2.
34
EXAMPLE 10.2

35
EXAMPLE 10.2

36
EXAMPLE 10.2

• Excess temperature can be calculated by,

• According to the boiling curve of Figure 10.4,

film pool boiling are achieved, in which case
heat transfer is due to both convection and
radiation.
• Heat transfer rate written on a per unit length
basis for a cylindrical surface of diameter D is
defined by (Eq. 10.3):

(Eg 10.9) 37
EXAMPLE 10.2

(Eq. 10.8)
(Eq. 10.9, can also use Eq. 10.10))

(Eq. 10.11)

And the heat transfer rate:

38
 10.5 FORCED 10.5
CONVECTION BOILING
39
FORCED CONVECTION BOILING
In Pool Boiling: fluid flow is due primarily to the buoyancy driven
motion of bubbles from the heated area.
In Forced Convection Boiling: flow is due to directed (bulk)
motion of the fluid, as well as to buoyancy effects.

Flow could be external over heated plates and cylinders.

Flow could also be internal, in a pipe or a duct, which is also called
two-phase flow, characterized by rapid changes from liquid to
vapor in the flow direction.

40
 10.5.1 EXTERNAL
FORCED CONVECTION
BOILING
For a liquid of velocity V moving in cross flow over a cylinder of diameter D, Lienhard
and Eichhorn (1976) developed the following expression (properties are evaluated at Tsat):
Low Velocity: High Velocity:

Where: We: Weber number: ratio of inertia and surface tension:

Low velocity is when
High velocity is when

The above two equations correlate experimental data within 20%. 41

 10.5.2 INTERNAL FORCED
CONVECTION BOILING:
TWO PHASE FLOW
Internal forced convection boiling is associated with bubble formation
at the inner surface of a heated tube.
Consider a vertical tube subjected to a constant surface heat flux:
• Subcooled liquid enters the tube and heated by single-phase forced
convection (use correlations in Ch. 8).
• Then, Twall > Tsat, vaporization is initiated in the subcooled flow
boiling region. Large radial temperature gradient occur. Bubbles are
forming near the wall and keep increasing.
• The core of the liquid reaches Tsat. At any radial location, bubbles
can exist, and the vapor mass fraction X exceeds zero. Saturation flow
boiling region starts, which begins with bubbly flow regime, then
slug flow, annular and mist regimes. Eventually the entire tube
surface is completely dry, and all the remaining liquid form droplets
within the core in the mist regime. After all droplets are vaporized, the
fluid is in the superheated, single-phase flow.
Critical heat flux conditions may lead to melting of the tube material in
extreme condition. 42
 TWO PHASE
FLOW
(IN SATURATED FLOW
BOILING REGION)
Mean vapor mass fraction
(in saturated flow boiling region)

For saturated flow boiling region in smooth circular tubes (horizontal/vertical):

• Use the larger value of h. All properties are evaluated
at Tsat. Applicable when the Confinement number Co:

• Where: is the mass flow rate per unit c.s.a.

or • Froude number is Fr =.
• Coefficient Gs,f is in Table 10.2.
• Stratification parameter, f(Fr) = 1 for vertical tubes and
To use this equation, the mean vapor mass fraction must be for horizontal tubes with Fr 0.04. For horizontal tubes
calculated. From Eqn. 1.12d with negligible fluid’s KE, PE and with Fr 0.04, then f(Fr) = 2.63 Fr .
0.3

W: • The single-phase convection coefficient, hsp, for

turbulent flow is from Eq. 8.62 with properties evaluated
Where x = 0 is when 0 and (u +pv) = at Tsat. flow boiling, annular and mist regimes, see Ref. 43
[Correlation for subcooled
t
10.5.3 TWO-PHASE FLOW IN
MICROCHANNELS
 Forced convection boiling in a two-phase flow in circular or non-circular
microchannels with hydraulic diameter (Dh) ranging from 10-1000 can give
extremely high heat transfer rate.
 In this situation, the bubble size can be large, and the Confinement number can
be very large, Co ½.
 Different types of flow regime exist, and h can dramatically increase.
 Equation 10.15 cannot be used.
 Recourse must be made to more sophisticated modeling (check newer version of
textbook and papers).

44
 PART II: MS3220 Team
CONDENSATION
 WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY
CONDENSATION?

Power generation Refrigeration

Desalination

46
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
10.6 CONDENSATION:
PHYSICAL
MECHANISMS 47
 CONDENSATION
• Occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature.
• Usually occurs when the vapor contacts a cool surface, and the latent energy of the
vapor is transferred into the surface.

48
Moran, M. J., H. N. Shapiro, D. D. Boettner, and M. B. Bailey, “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 7 th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011
Trivia: Foggy car window during rain. Why?

49
 Modes of condensation

Film condensation, Dropwise condensation, Homogeneous condensation, Direct contact condensation,

vapor-cold surface vapor-cold surface contact. vapor condenses out as droplet vapor-cold liquid contact
contact. Usually on If the surface is coated with suspended in a gas phase to
clean a substance that inhibits form a fog
uncontaminated wetting. Develop in cracks,
surfaces. pits & cavities.

In this course and text-book, only surface condensation will be discussed.

The condensate provides a resistance to heat transfer between the vapor and the surface. Use short vertical surfaces50 or
horizontal cylinders if film condensation occurs.

Film condensation on clean,
uncontaminated surfaces
Courtesy of Nenad’s group UIUC
Dropwise condensation: The drops
form in cracks, pits, and cavities on
the surface and may grow and
coalesce thru continued
condensation
• Dropwise condensation is
more superior than film
condensation in maintaining
high condensation and heat
transfer rates.
• Silicones, Teflon, waxes and
fatty acids are often used to
obtain dropwise
condensation, but they may
lose its effectiveness over
time.
• Condenser design usually
assumes film condensation
since it has less h.
• Will focus on film
condensation in this chapter.
51
 10.7 LAMINAR FILM
CONDENSATION
ON A VERTICAL PLATE
52
Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
Film starts on the top and flows downward due to gravity, with thickness and mass flow rate
increase with x due to continuous condensation at liquid-vapor surface at Tsat. Tv, > Tsat > Ts.
Assumptions by Nusselt (1916):
1. Laminar flow and constant properties assumed
for the liquid film.
2. Gas is assumed to be a pure vapor at uniform Tsat.
With no temp gradient in the vapor, heat transfer to
the liquid-vapor interface can occur only by
condensation, not by conduction.
3. The shear stress at the liquid-vapor interface
assumed to be negligible. Therefore at is 0.
Based on 2 and 3, no need to consider vapor
velocity and thermal boundary layer (see (a)).
4. Momentum and energy transfer by advection in
the condensate film are assumed negligible. The
heat transfer within the film is assumed only by
conduction, therefore, the temperature
Boundary layer effects Nusselt distribution is constant.
related to film condensation assumptions
Film condition from these assumptions is shown in (b).
53
is Gamma
• The x-momentum equation can be found as Eq. 9.1 with and for the liquid and x is downward.
• From Eq. 9.2, the pressure gradient is dp/dx = + since the free stream density is the vapor density,
=.
• From Assumption 4, momentum advection term may be neglected, and the x-momentum
equation can be written as:

• Integrating twice and applying boundary conditions of the form u(0) = 0 and = 0, the velocity
profile in the film becomes:

• Then, the condensate mass flow per unit width (x), may be obtained in terms of an integral
involving the velocity profile:
(10.19)

• Substituting from u(y) equation just derived, then:

(10.20)

• At the liquid-vapor interface of a unit width and length dx, the rate of heat transfer into the film
dq, must equal the rate of energy release due to condensation at the interface, hence:
(10.21)
• Since advection is neglected, the rate of heat transfer across the interface must equal to
the rate of heat transfer to the surface:
(10.22)

• Since the liquid temperature distribution is linear, Fourier’s law may be used to express
the heat flux as:
(10.23)

• Combining all the previous equations (Eqns.: 10.19, 10.21 – 10.23), then:

(10.24)

• Differentiating Eq. 10.20:

(10.25)

• Combining Eqs. 10.24 and 10.25:

• Integrating from x = 0, where = 0, to any x-location of interest on the surface:

(10.26)

• Substitute this equation to Eq. 10.20 to obtain 55

• Rohsenow recommends using a modified latent heat of the form:
(10.27)
• The surface heat flux may be expressed as: (10.28)

• From Eqn. 10.23, the local convection coefficient is then: (10.29)

• Or, from Eqn. 10.26, replacing with : then:

(10.30)

• Since hx depends on x-1/4, the average convection coefficient for the entire plate is:

or
(10.31)
• Then, the average Nusselt number is:
(10.32)
Assumptions of Eq. 10.32:
• All liquid properties should be evaluated at film temperature Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2.
• The vapor density, and latent heat of vaporization should be evaluated at Tsat.
• Errors are less than 3% for Ja 0.1 and 1 Pr 100.
• For inclined plates, replace g with g.cos , where is the angle between the vertical and the surface.
• Be careful in using this equation for large value of and it does not apply if = .
56
• The expression may be use for condensation on the inner or outer surface of a vertical tube of radius R, if R >>.
The total heat transfer to the surface may be obtained by using Eq. 10.31 with the following form of Newton’ Law
of Cooling:
(10.33)

The total condensation rate may then be determined from the relation:

(10.34)

The last two equations are generally applicable to any surface geometry.

Additional notes:
1. Condensate provides a resistance to heat transfer between the vapor and the surface.
2. This resistance increases with condensate thickness, which increase in the flow direction.
3. Hence, it is desirable to use short vertical surfaces or horizontal cylinders in film
condensation.
57
In Summary: For Laminar Flow of Film Condensation:
Thickness of the film

[ ]
1/ 4
4 𝑘𝑙 𝜇 𝑙 (𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇 𝑠)
𝛿(𝑥)=
𝑔 𝜌 𝑙 ( 𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )h 𝑓𝑔
Heat transfer coefficient & correlation

[ ]
3 ′ 1/ 4
𝑔 𝜌 𝑙 (𝜌 𝑙 − 𝜌 𝑣 )𝑘 h
𝑙 𝑓𝑔
h 𝐿 =0.943
𝜇𝑙 (𝑇 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇 𝑠 )𝐿

Boundary layer effects Nusselt

related to film condensation assumptions
58
10.8 TURBULENT FILM
CONDENSATION
59
TURBULENT FILM
CONDENSATION
• Turbulent flow may exist in film
condensation.
• Reynolds number:

• Since condensate mass flow rate:

• Therefore, the Reynolds number is:

• Where: um is the average film velocity, and is

the film thickness (characteristic length).
From Figure 10.12:
• For Re 30: Laminar and wave free film.
• For 30 < Re < 1800: Laminar and wavy film.
60
• For Re 1800: Turbulent film starts.
 MODIFIED REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR
CONDENSATION ON A VERTICAL PLATE (1/2)
• For Re 30: Laminar and wave free film, Eqn. 10.35 and 10.20 can be combined as:
Assuming , Eqns. 10.26, 10.31 and 10.37 can be combined to
obtain the modified Nusselt number:

(10.38)

• For 30 Re 1800: Laminar and wavy film at the bottom of the

plate (x = L), the modified Nusselt number is:

(10.39)

• For Re 1800, and Prl 1: Turbulent film at the bottom of the

plate (x = L), the modified Nusselt number is: • Assume condensation is over the entire plate
with .
(10.40) • All liquid properties should be evaluated at
film temperature Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2. 61
MODIFIED REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR
CONDENSATION ON A VERTICAL PLATE (2/2)

The previous average modified Nusselt number equations are associated with the film thickness , at the bottom of
the plate (x = L). If is unknown, rewrite the equation to eliminate Re, by combining Eqns. 10.34 and 10.36:

Where:

Therefore:

Try Example 10.3 62

EXAMPLE 10.3

63
EXAMPLE 10.3

64
EXAMPLE 10.3

• Since we assume the film thickness is small relative to the cylinder diameter
(1st Assumption), we may use the correlations for flat plate (Chapter 10.7 and
10.8) to a vertical cylinder. The Jakob number,

• It follows that the modified latent heat,

65
EXAMPLE 10.3

• Dimensionless number P, can be calculated by,

• With P = 1501

66
EXAMPLE 10.3

• Thus the Nusselt number,

• And, the heat transfer coefficient,

• The heat transfer rate, and the rate of condensation can be calculated by
Heat transfer
rate

Condensation rate

67
EXAMPLE 10.3

• In order to check whether that our assumption regarding to the film thickness
is correct or not, we may use

• Hence δ(L) ˂< (D/2 =0.04 m), and use of the vertical plate correlation for a
vertical cylinder is justified.
68
 10.9 FILM
CONDENSATION
ON RADIAL SYSTEMS 69
 FILM CONDENSATION ON
RADIAL SYSTEMS • The Nusselt analysis in Section 10.7 can be extended to
laminar film condensation on the outer surface of a sphere
or a horizonal cylinder, and the average Nusselt number is:

(10.46)

• Where: C = 0.826 for the sphere, and 0.729 for the tube. See conditions
for the properties for Eqn. 10.32 for all equations in this section.
• When a liquid-vapor interface is curved, pressure difference are
established across the interface by the effect of surface tension, as given by
the Young-Laplace equation for 2D:

• Where rc is the local radius of the curvature of

the liquid-vapor interface.
• For unfinned tubes (b), and pl pv along the
For a vertical tier of N horizontal un-finned tubes (c), then, (with is for
entire liquid-vapor interface, and the surface
top tube in the above equation, and n = -1/6):
tension is negligible. 70
FILM CONDENSATION ON
FINNED TUBES
Condensation on a tube with annular fins:
• The sharp corners of the finned tube lead to larger variation in the liquid-
vapor interface curvature, and surface tension effect may be important.
• Surface tension forces tend to increase heat transfer rates near the fin
tips by reducing the film thickness and decrease heat transfer rates in
the inter-fin region by retaining condensate.
• Enhancement ratio: ratio of heat transfer rate of finned tube with that of
unfinned tube: .
• For design purposes, the minimum enhancement ratio with the finned
tube is given by Rose (1994) as (properties are evaluated as in Eq. 10.32
and is at Tsat):

• Actual enhancement ratio is between 2 and 4 for water.

• Read more facts on page 627-628 of the textbook.
Try Example 10.4 71
EXAMPLE 10.4

72
EXAMPLE 10.4

73
EXAMPLE 10.4

• Rearrange

to

• And the modified latent heat,

74
EXAMPLE 10.4

• Thus,

• For banks of tubes, the array averaged convection coefficient is,

• The condensation rate per unit length of tubing can be calculated by,

Answer 1
75
EXAMPLE 10.4

• For the finned tubes, with dimension as follows:

• The minimum enhancement attributable to the annular fins can be calculated by,

• Therefore for finned tubes, the minimum condensation rate is,

Answer 2

76
EXAMPLE 10.4 – ADDITIONAL COMMENTS Equation 10.49

77
10.10 CONDENSATION
IN
HORIZONTAL TUBES 78
 Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes
• Commonly used in refrigeration and AC systems.
• Vapor condenses inside horizontal tubes.
• Conditions inside the tube depends on the velocity of
vapor (um,v), the mass fraction of vapor (X), and the
fluid properties.
• For low vapor velocity (Fig. 10.16 a): fluid
Low vapor velocity. High vapor velocity.
condenses in the upper regions and flows
downward to a larger pool of liquid. Then the liquid
pool is propelled by the shear forces from the vapor.
• For high vapor velocity (Fig. 10.16 b): the two-
Condition of low vapor velocity: phase flow becomes turbulent and annular with
vapor in the middle with decreasing diameter.

Where i refers to inlet. 79

Equations for Condensation in Horizontal Tubes
• For low vapor velocities:
This is Eqn. 10.46 with C = 0.555 and

Properties evaluation, see below Eq. 10.32.

Note: if condensation is on the outside, C = 0.729.
• For high vapor velocities:
Where:
Mass fraction of vapor in fluid:
Martinelli parameter: Xtt:

Note: for both equations, evaluate all properties at Tsat, and use when the mass flow rate per unit c.s.a.
tube exceeds 500 kg/s/m2.
• For intermediate vapor velocities:
Complex equations. See Dobson and Cato (1998).
80
Enhancing Condensation by Microfins

• Condensation rate can be increased by adding

small fins to the interior.
• Microfins are typically made of copper with
triangular or trapezoidal-shaped fins of height 0.1-
0.25 mm.
• Heat transfer is increased due to increase in
surface area and turbulence induced by the
structure.
Microfins in a helical pattern
• Microfins are typically arranged in a helical or
herringbone pattern down the length.
• Heat transfer rate enhanced by 50 – 180%.

81
10.11 DROPWISE
CONDENSATION
82
Dropwise Condensation
• Typically, h for dropwise condensation is an order of magnitude larger than that of film
condensation.
• In heat exchanger with dropwise condensation, other thermal resistances may be significantly
larger.
• Correlation for dropwise condensation on well promoted copper surfaces with steam, in
(this is for a vertical surface
W/(m2.K):
(using Eqn. 10.33), not for
tubes)

• Heat transfer rate: Eqn. 10.33. Condensation rate: Eqn. 10.34. Convection coeff.: Eqn. 10.27.
• Properties ae evaluated as for Eqn. 10.32.
• The effect of subcooling, Tsat –Ts on is small and may be neglected.
• Dropwise condensation transfer heat thru drops with diameter less than 100 mm.

83
Dropwise condensation: Practical insights
Common practice to use surface coating such as Silicones, teflon, assortment waxes, and fatty
acids often used as hydrophobic surface to inhibit wetting (film condensation) and stimulate
droplets.

Tsuchiya, H. et al. , 2017. New Journal of Chemistry, 41(3), pp.982-991.

However, coating gradually lose their effectiveness due to oxidation, fouling, peeling. It’s often
difficult to maintain coating, so usually condensation analysis are often based on the assumption of
film condensation as a more conservative/lower limit.
84
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

85
The original slides were taken from the slides given by Bergman’s book: Bergman, T.
L., A. S. Lavine, F. P. Incropera and D. P. DeWitt, “Introduction to Heat Transfer”, 6th
Ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2011. They were adopted by I Made Astina and rewritten by
Panji Prawisudha. Then the slides were enhanced and finalized by T. A. Fauzi
Soelaiman for the sole purpose of lecturing of Heat Transfer course, at the Mechanical
Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the
Institut Teknologi Bandung during Semester 1 2018-2019. The slides were further
modified to accommodate the new Curriculum 2019 in Semester 1 2019-2020. Errors
may still exist in these slides. Please refer to the original textbook for the correct ones
and inform me through email at: tafauzi@yahoo.com. The slides should not be used
for other purposes since no copyright has been obtained from John Wiley & Sons.
Thank you.

TERIMA KASIH
MS3220 TEAM