Chapter 2

Network Protocols And Models

2.1 Rules of Communication
2.2 Network Protocols and
Standards (OSI & TCP/IP)
2.3 The 7 layers of the OSI
reference model and their
functions
 2.1 Rules of Communication

What is Communication?
• The process of sending
and receiving
data/information b/n
sender and receiver
• All communication
methods have five
elements in common.
• MS, TM, & MD,
message, & protocol
Computer communication
 Establishing the Rules
Once there is an agreed upon method of
communicating (face-to-face, telephone,
letter, email etc), the protocols (rules of
communication) put in place must account for
the following requirements:
• An identified sender and receiver (uniquely)
• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements
common computer protocols include the
following requirements:
 1. Message Encoding
• Encoding is the process of
converting information
into another, acceptable
form, for transmission.
• Decoding reverses this
process in order to have
the information.
Assume f-f com
• convert, or encode, their
thoughts and
perceptions/observation
about the location into
words..
Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate
form for the medium
 2. Message Formatting and
Encapsulation
Example: Personal letter contains the following elements:
• An identifier/address of the recipient
• A salutation or greeting
• The message content
• A closing phrase
• An identifier/address of the sender

Put it in envelope encapsulation

De-encapsulation occurs when the process is reversed
 Example : … a frame…
• Each computer message is encapsulated in a
specific format, called a frame, before it is sent
over the network.
• A FRAME acts like an envelope
 3.Message Size
SEGMENTATION  as per the minimum and maximum
size requirements. Face-to face communication 
divide your message into sentence…

ENCAPSULATION  each segment is encapsulated in

a separate frame with the address information, and is
sent over the network.

DE-ENCAPSULATION at the receiving host, the

messages are de-encapsulated and put back together to
be processed and interpreted.
 4. Message Timing
• Access Method: This determines when
someone can send a message.
Continued….

• Response Timeout

• Flow Control
 Source and destination hosts use flow control to
negotiate correct timing for successful communication.
 A sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate
than the destination host can receive and process
Example
5. Message Delivery Options
2.2 Network Protocols and Standards
• Data networks(infrastructure) are
systems of end devices,
intermediary devices, and the
media connecting the devices.
• For communication to occur, these
devices must know how to
communicate.
 Continued……
• A group of inter-related protocols necessary to
perform a communication function is called a
protocol suite
• Protocol suites are implemented by end devices,
intermediary devices in software, hardware or
both.
What is the use of standard in a multivendor
network?
In the late 1970’s: ... incredible increases of Network
devices supply...
Vendors/manufacturers: HP, IBM, D-LINK,COMPAQ …
Problem:
• Private or proprietary networking technologies

• Products for network technology from different

vendors becomes incompatible.

• Like NIC, Modem, hub, bridge, communication

software/protocols....

• things were quite messy

 Continued…..
 Hence we need Open Standards
 Open Standards are guidelines that vendors
adhere/stick on in order to make their products
compatible with products from other vendors.
 Standards organizations non-profit organizations are
established to develop and promote the concept of
open standards
 Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral
 Guarantee that no single company’s product can
monopolize the market
 Example: wireless router for the home/ISR.
– TP-Link, Link-sys, etc
 ISO takes the responsibility …..
The International Organization for Standardization
 Continued…
• ISO the world’s largest developer of international
standards for a wide variety of products and services
• In networking, ISO is best known for its Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model  project name
• Initially the OSI model was designed by the ISO to provide
a framework to build a suite of open systems protocols to
develop an international network that would not be
dependent on proprietary systems.
• Ultimately, the speed at which the TCP/IP-based Internet
was adopted, and caused the development and acceptance
of the OSI protocol suite to lag behind.
• Developed by American DoD (Department of Defense)
 Continued…..

Note:
A protocol suite may be specified by a standards organization
or developed by a vendor then will standardized by RFCs
• The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard (freely
available to the public)
• the TCP/IP and OSI models are the primary models used
when discussing network functionality
• The IP suite is a suite of protocols required for
transmitting and receiving information using the
Internet
• It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the first two
networking protocols defined for this standard were
TCP and IP
 Divide and conquer
strategy/approach in car
manufacturing process
PROCESS 1 PROCESS 2 PROCESS 3 PROCESS 4 PROCESS 5 PROCESS 6 PROCESS 7

      
The Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model in late 1970’s
Comparing the OSI and TCP/IP Models
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

 Easier to learn
 Help visualize the interaction between various protocols
 Depicts /shows the operation of the protocols occurring
within each layer
 Shows the interaction of protocols with the layers above
and below each layer. etc
• Easier to develop
• Realizes Multivendor interoperability etc
Other Standards Organizations

The Internet Assigned Numbers

Authority (IANA)
 IEEE
• The bottom two layers of the OSI reference model
pertain to hardware:
• the NIC and
• the network cabling.

802 PROJECT (802 stands for February

1980)
To further refine the requirements for hardware that
operate within these layers, the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has developed
enhancements specific to different NICs and cabling.
The IEEE 802.x Standard
2.3 The 7 layers of the OSI reference
model and their functions

• On elementary level

 Application Layer - Layer 7
• Communicates with network aware
applications (APPs).
• Network Aware Applications (APPs)
software/ programs used to
communicate over the network.
Example
• Email Client
• File ACCESS CLIENT
• Web Browser
• Instant Messaging Clients
• Database Access Client
• Network MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING CLIENT
• IP Television
• IP Radio
• IP TELEPHONY OR Voice OVER IP etc
Application layer protocols
programs that interface with the network and
prepare the data for transfer.
provides network access to network aware APPs
Examples
HTTP
• DNS
•
HTTPS
SNMP
• DHCP IPTV
• TFTP SMTP etc
• VoIP
• TELNET NOTE: Application layer
• SSH doesn’t include
• FTP network aware APPs
 Presentation Layer - Layer 6
• Genrify data (accept data
from session layer and
convert it appropriately. if
it is word genrify to word
– i.e. Coding and conversion of
application layer data
• Data compression and
decompression,
• Data Encryption and
Decryption
 Session Layer - Layer 5

• Defines how two computers/Apps

 establish/creates session
 maintain session
 end a session (dialogs or
connection)
 Authentication
 Authorization
• Example: suppose you are
running two Apps.
• Audio conference session
• web browsing session
• this layer maintains each session
 Transport Layer - Layer 4
• segmentation of data (look the
next slide..)
• sequencing
• Assembly in the receiving side
• uses two protocols
• TCP for reliable transmission
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
for unreliable trans.
• It can detect segments that are
damaged during transmission and
automatically generates a
retransmission request
Important!!!
• In theory, a single communication, such as a
music video or an email message, could be
sent across a network from a source to a
destination as one massive, uninterrupted
stream of bits- network monopoly  hence
we need segmentation
 Network Layer - Layer 3

• Packet construction

• IP /logical addressing
– IPV4 or IPV6
• Routing
• finds best path
 Data Link Layer - Layer 2
• Frame construction

• MAC addressing

• Error checking
 Physical Layer - Layer 1
• actual data transfer happens (in bit
streams….)
• This layer is often referred to as
the "hardware layer." Although
the above layers can be
implemented as firmware (chip-
level functions on the NIC), rather
than actual software.
 NOTE: Protocol Data Units (PDUs)

• Data
• Segment (Layer 4 PDU)
• Packet (Layer 3 PDU)
• Frame (Layer 2 PDU)
• Bits (layer 1 PDU)
Note:
The form that a piece of data
takes at any layer is called a
protocol data unit (PDU).
Note: the function of each layer in TCP/IP model